Educating students with vision impairment today: Consideration of the expanded core curriculum

Abstract

A phenomenological study was undertaken giving students with vision impairment the opportunity to voice their experiences of secondary schooling in mainstream schools. Policies of inclusion were considered, with analysis of how training and curriculum came together, as experienced by these students, to develop their inclusion in schools in Victoria. Interviews of each participant using interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed a number of themes, with lack of teacher understanding of vision impairment a common theme across all cases. The limited access to visiting teachers, specialists in vision impairment, points to the need for alternatives in the delivery of necessary expanded core curriculum components. It is proposed that teachers of these students would benefit from an online unit to educate them in vision impairment to eliminate unintentional exclusion practices currently experienced and to encourage them to incorporate components of the expanded core curriculum into their everyday practices. The need for further research is indicated.

Keywords

Expanded core curriculum inclusion interpretative phenomenological analysis mainstream secondary school vision impairment

“The ECC is the heart of the responsibility of educators serving visually impaired students . . . and it epitomizes their ‘right to be different’.”

(American Foundation for the Blind, 2017).

Introduction

It is accepted globally that all students have the right to a quality education. The United Nations Convention on the rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2006) ratified by more than 80 signatories including Australia in 2006, refers to an education that ensures the right to education of persons with disabilities at all levels, aiming to eliminate the barriers that exclude or marginalize these learners. Education providers are to ensure that there is no exclusion from the general education system on the basis of disability, with Australia espousing an inclusive education approach that promotes the “equal and active participation of all people with disability” (Forlin, Chambers, Loreman, Deppeler, & Sharma, 2013, p. 4). Students “are to receive the support they require within the general education system to facilitate their effective education,” and effective support measures are to be provided “that maximize academic and social development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion” (United Nations, 2006, Article 24, 2). Measures taken include “facilitating the learning of Braille, alternative script, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication and orientation and mobility skills, and facilitating peer support and mentoring” which may require “measures taken to employ teachers . . . who are qualified in Braille, and to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of education” (United Nations, 2006, Article 24, 3). The body of knowledge and skills needed by students with vision impairment due to their unique disability-specific needs is coined the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC; Hatlen, 1996). Although not explicitly mentioned, policies clearly support the provision of instruction in all the areas of the ECC, since these are functional and educational needs that result from vision disability (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010) and must be mastered for success “in school, obtain employment and fully participate in society” (Wolffe & Kelly, 2011).

Although this article will focus on schooling in Australia, the ECC is a globally recognized prerequisite to the inclusion of students with vision impairment (those who are blind or have low vision) in schools. Instruction for students with vision impairment should include the core curriculum as well as instruction in areas that are directly affected by a child’s vision impairment (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010, p. 2). The ECC is not seen as an optional part of a vision impaired student’s educational program but an essential part that must be taught, compensating for experiences that are typically learned incidentally by sighted children through observing role models visually ( Lohmeier, Blankenship, & Hatlen, 2009). Without training in the ECC skills, students who are vision impaired have difficulty accessing the standard core curriculum or engaging in many of the activities that are basic to their well-being (Allman, Lewis, & Spungin, 2014; Beamish & Brown, 2012; Statewide Vision Resource Centre [SVRC], 2016). Attendance at local mainstream schools is the norm for most children with visual impairment in Australia (Foreman, 2011). However, it is unknown whether regular schools provide an adequately inclusive environment for these students. The ECC contains a raft of skills and concepts that are described briefly below.

The ECC

The ECC comprises of nine areas: compensatory or access skills, orientation and mobility skills and concepts, social interaction skills, use of technology and assistive technology, career education, independent living skills, recreational and leisure skills, self-determination skills, and sensory efficiency skills (Kelly, 2015; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Each is addressed in turn.

Compensatory or access skills refer to the skills that students with vision impairment need to access all areas of the general education curriculum at a level equitable to their sighted peers in the most independent fashion possible (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Depending on the needs of the student, this can include concept development, spatial understanding, study and organizational skills, speaking and listening skills, and adaptations access such as the use of braille, large print, optical devices, tactile symbols, and recording materials.

Orientation and mobility skills are needed for individuals with vision impairment to safely maneuver in their environment (Jacobson, 2012) and involve students learning about themselves and the environment in which they move, from basic body image to independent travel (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).

Social interaction skills used by sighted students are learned by visually observing the environment and other people, resulting in socially appropriate behaviors based on that information (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010; Zebehazy & Smith, 2011). As social interaction skills learned by students with vision impairment in this manner are limited, there is a need for direct instruction (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010; Wolffe & Kelly, 2011).

Assistive technology helps provide access to inaccessible educational material, equalizing the ability to access information between individuals with vision impairment and their sighted peers (Brown, Packer, & Passmore, 2013; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Students use an array of technologies including computers with screen enlargement and screen reading software, video magnifiers, digital recorders, and braillewriters. Assistive technology must be facilitated by professionals who understand how to use the equipment and how to teach its use (Wolffe & Kelly, 2011).

Career education in the core curriculum allows students to understand different career paths. Sighted students have many opportunities to learn about careers and work habits through visual observation but to compensate for the lack of visual cues about work and jobs, students with vision impairment need authentic experiences with various jobs, which will allow them to make educated and independent decisions (Ravenscroft, 2013; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010; Wolffe & Kelly, 2011).

Independent living skills provide the tools for living independent adult lives. Although these generally come easily to sighted individuals, activities of daily living including personal hygiene, food preparation, and financial management must be taught to students with vision impairment (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).

Sighted students select recreational activities in which to participate by observing a range of activities and making choices. Students with vision impaired need to be taught about the activities available and how to participate and become involved (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).

Self-determination refers to believing in oneself, understanding one’s abilities and limitations, making choices, and having control over life experiences (Lieberman, Haegele, Columna, & Conroy, 2014). Self-determination skills have been related to a student’s ability to explain their vision impairment, self-advocacy, and ability to accept and decline help (Agran, Hong, & Blankenship, 2007).

Sensory efficiency addresses the use of residual vision, hearing, and other senses, learning how to use optical devices, hearing aids, augmentative communication devices, and other supports to enable or enhance access to the environment (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).

Students with vision impairment in contemporary Australia generally attend mainstream schools (Media Access Australia, 2016). There remain concerns regarding the “educational price paid” for the benefits of social integration and in the provision of the ECC, resulting in students today not having “the same opportunities as previous generations” (Blind Citizens Australia, 2010, p. 7). Most general education curricula include skills that overlap with the ECC, such as working in groups (social skills), learning about different jobs (career education), reading a map (orientation and mobility), and managing money (independent living skills and school camps (leisure skills). While many ECC skills can be embedded in the general education curriculum, it is important that specialist visiting teachers (VTs), who have expertise and practical experience in the field of vision impairment, provide instruction in teaching concepts, skills, and knowledge that a student who is vision impaired is unlikely to acquire in the same manner as their sighted peers (Ravenscroft, 2015; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). In Australia, while VTs are regarded as best placed to implement these curriculum areas in schools, (Ravenscroft, 2015; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010; SVRC, 2016; Vision Australia, 2016), there is concern regarding the lack of appropriately qualified and skilled VTs and their role (Brown & Beamish, 2012; Scott, 2009). VTs are expected to provide direct teaching of the ECC as well as “high-level advice and a range of supports to classroom teachers, education support staff, students, families and the wider school community” (Victoria State Government, 2012, p. 48). In Victoria, VTs are more available to state schools, as students at independent schools have more limited governmental funding, often equating to only two visits per term (SVRC, 2016). Students may also access SVRC for provision of support including materials in alternative formats, and Guide Dogs Victoria, (2016) and Vision Australia (2012), who support the orientation and mobility of students attending schools, camps, and sporting activities.

The focus of this research was to gain an understanding of how students with vision impairment in secondary schools in Victoria, Australia, were experiencing mainstream education, seeking to hear the voices of students themselves (Byrne & Rickards, 2011; Jones, 2014). Specifically, the provision of the ECC and the impact this has on schooling was considered in the light of student revelations about their education. The underlying question was, Can schools supported by VTs satisfactorily provide the ECC to secondary school students attending state and independent schools? The experiences of students with VTs and provision of the nine areas of the ECC were considered in detail, to understand the extent of ECC delivery and barriers students may encounter in accessing a quality inclusive education.

Methodology

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was the qualitative research approach used in exploring the experiences of seven students with vision impairment from mainstream secondary schools in Victoria. Students opted into the study by replying to an explanatory letter printed in an online Guide Dogs newsletter calling for senior school students happy to talk about their schooling. Guide Dogs Victoria (2016) has provided support for Victorians with low vision or blindness since 1957, with services today including training and education programs in addition to dog training. All seven students who applied participated. Three girls and four boys opted into the study. One student was in Year 10 and the others in Year 12, the final year of schooling, with two attending state schools and the others attended elite fee-paying independent/private schools. One student was blind and used braille, four students were legally blind with less than 6/60 visual acuity or less than 10° visual field in their better eye (SVRC, 2016), and two were vision impaired. Ethical approval was given for this study by Monash University Human Research Ethics committee. No student names are used to protect their privacy.

Each student was considered as an individual case. The case is central to the inquiry; the researcher attempted to understand as much about one case before moving onto the next (Cassidy, Reynolds, Naylor, & De Souza, 2011). The intensity of activity for each case means that IPA studies are usually conducted on relatively small sample sizes that are sufficient for the potential of IPA to be realized (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Each student was interviewed using in-depth, semi-structured interviews which were audio recorded and transcribed. Each student undertook two or three interviews within a 3-month period, each of approximately 1 hr duration at a venue of their choosing. The first interview was to establish the context of the participant’s experience in relation to their schooling and to establish a rapport. General open questions regarding the participant’s vision impairment and memories of primary school followed. The second and third interviews allow participants to delve deeper into the details of their experiences, reflecting and elaborating on issues raised earlier. Questions were of the following nature: Can you tell me about any assistance you have been given to participate in your secondary school programs? What do you consider to be the enablers and the barriers to accessing and participating in your subjects? Can you talk to me about your social network and interactions with your peers? Answers were extended through a curious, persistent, and critical attitude and through prompted questioning of what had just been said. Also, a simple nod, or “mm,” or a pause invited the participant to go on with the description. A flexible interviewing process allows participants to respond freely with open-ended questions allowing for individual variation and for the interviewer to explore and probe within predetermined areas of inquiry (Knox & Burkard, 2009; Seidman, 1998);

Interviews were each analyzed using IPA which is committed to the detailed analysis of personal experience, and involves a double hermeneutic, as the researcher tries to make sense of the participant and how the participant make sense of their experiences (Smith, 2017; Smith & Osborn, 2015). The researcher tries to understand their participant’s world, and to describe what it is like, balancing representation against interpretation and contextualization. IPA analysis revolves round the close reading and re-reading of the text (Smith et al., 2009). Transcripts were read line by line and analyzed by searching for points of descriptive, linguistic, and conceptual note throughout. IPA involves maintaining an open mind and an exploratory attitude to produce a comprehensive and detailed account of the data while bracketing prior understandings and assumptions, adopting a genuinely open, curious, and at the same time a critical, self-aware stance (Finlay, 2008, 2013) Initial notes were transformed into emergent experiential themes which set out to capture the key elements of the participant’s experience framed by the interpretations of the researcher. To provide an overall structure to the analysis, the identified themes were grouped, the aim being to identify super-ordinate categories suggesting a hierarchical relationship between them (Southcott & Joseph, 2015). The collation of identified themes is supported with evidence from the interview, using quotations which the researcher feels best captures the essence of the participant’s thoughts and their emotions about the experience of the phenomenon being explored (Biggerstaff & Thompson, 2008; Larkin, Watts, & Clifton, 2006). The analytic process continued with a detailed examination of each case, followed by a search for the themes across cases.

The common theme relating to the provision of the ECC is considered in detail in this article. In addition to student interviews, interviews of three Heads of school educational support services and three aides were carried out, transcribed, and analyzed, “to further contextualize the data” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 71). Findings related to school personnel are followed by data from students presented under the nine areas of the ECC.

Findings

School personnel

Support for students with special needs in secondary schools is generally overseen by the school Head of Educational Support (HoES), a qualified teacher, who may or may not have additional qualifications in Special Education. As the HoES, this teacher is responsible for alerting staff to the needs of any student with vision impairment attending the school, to ensure provisions are made in exams, guide any aides employed for support, and liaise with the VT and parents. As one HoES said of the ECC, “No, I don’t know what that is. What is it?” She added “We did get some mobility training for [the student] from Guide Dogs, and they assessed the grounds, identifying where yellow lines were to be put down.” The HoES was responsible for the employment of the student’s VT and explained that “She charges per hour plus travel, so this equates to only 8 sessions – about two per term.” She added, “The VT spoke briefly with staff at the beginning of the school year, but generally worked with the student on organizational skills really.” The HoES reflected, “What he [the student] really needed was someone to ensure he had keyboard skills … He should have been touch typing. He didn’t have the full-on support from an experienced VT who may have enabled this.” Class teachers did not do any training prior to taking the student, and as far as the HoES knew, “nothing is available for staff that I’m aware of, no.” Other schools were also found to be unaware of the ECC. A HoES with a student with vision impairment in Year 10 explained that she had no previous experience of students with vision impairment and thought that the student attending was “a first for the school.” She stated, “I haven’t done a course or anything. I suppose there is something out there but I don’t really know. I just haven’t done this.” When asked about the services of a VT, she stated that because of limited funding and the expense of employing a VT, the funding was used “to support his attendance at a school camp.” She added, “I am going to make sure we do have a visit next year though because, on talking with the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority we now know we must have the recommendations from a VT to get exam provisions.” She did not know what the ECC was but later recalled having a sheet in her files given to her by a person from Guide Dogs. On finding the sheet she stated,

There is information here on technology, lighting, print and all that sort of stuff. Career education . . . etc. a lot of it is covered incidentally at the school. It details the ECC. But a lot of it is his responsibility now at his age. It is up to him what technology to use. We don’t do independent living skills – but he can do a lot of that . . . He is supposed to participate in his own IEP [Independent Education Program] it says here – well there you go! I didn’t realize that.

Participants

Only the two participants from state schools had more than six sessions a year contact with a VT. One participant had been taught to braille when she first started her schooling at the only school for the blind still operating in Victoria at the time. However, with the closure of the school, her move to a state school had not been easy as she recalled having “a teacher aide in Grade 3 who didn’t actually know braille, and the year after I had a new teacher aide and she couldn’t braille either.” She was satisfied with the regular visits from her VTs in secondary school, stating “The VTs have all been supportive” both for their help in the classroom and “just to talk about other things that are going on.” The other state school participant stated his VT “only advocated for being like everybody else, be normal.” He added, “I don’t care about being different to every other kid, because I am different.” His experiences with his VT, aides, teachers, and peers were “so negative,” he finally left the school to be homeschooled as he was “extremely stressed” and felt that his work was “being sabotaged.” He added, “I was too optimistic and thought that people actually meant it when they said we are here for you, but unfortunately I soon realized that it wasn’t the case.” Participants were usually withdrawn from classes to have instruction from their VT, and most often these were sport classes. A participant found that VTs had set ideas of what technologies were to be used and even what pen must be used, “not seeing the possibility that you are really coping,” adding that sometimes they seemed to “mix up the idea of vision impairment with mental impairment.” The limited time VTs generally spent at schools supporting the needs of the participants with vision impairment appears insufficient for the development of class teacher understanding. Experiences related to the nine areas of the ECC purportedly to be developed by VTs revealed needs which remained unaddressed, as illustrated further below.

Access to the curriculum on par with peers had not been facilitated for any participant, with participants reporting many instances of barriers to learning and access to work provided to their peers. Although all participants gave their school a copy of their vision statement which included their favored method for the provision of text materials, they invariably found that teachers would enlarge worksheets to A3, disliked by them all because of resulting organizational difficulties and inappropriate font size. Teachers often forgot to enlarge and participants would either have to leave the room to do this themselves or wait for an aide to complete this task. One participant recalled that it was “annoying” having to go down to the photocopying room to get things blown up, which he had done “thousands of times!” Participants asked for materials to be sent as e-mails, so they could “look on with the rest of the class,” but this was a rare occurrence. VTs often organized texts to be enlarged, but these were found to be cumbersome and isolating as they took up so much room and consequently were avoided. As a participant explained, “one maths text came in ten huge volumes.”

Accessing information from the board remained extremely difficult for participants, with participants stating, “No I can’t get stuff off the board. I need it to be read out. She [teacher] discusses it in class anyway,” and “usually I listen and take notes as the teacher talks.” Participants generally tried to compile notes from the board by writing or typing as the teacher read out what they wrote, but often this was too fast or incomplete and they were forced to rely on other students. As a participant explained, “I just wish she would dictate as she is writing. I always have to ask people near me ‘can you please read that to me’, ‘what does that say’, ‘what did she just write’ which can be embarrassing.”

Participants were often excluded from the more visual subjects, and no advice appeared to have been given by VTs regarding the legal responsibility teachers had regarding equity of access in all curriculum areas for students with vision impairment. On being excluded from science classes, participants felt that it was most likely a result of perceived dangers when doing practicums and maintained it was not their choice to be excluded from participation. As one participant put it, “I can’t because apparently, it [science] is all too dangerous.” Participants were not offered alternative ways of accessing practicums such as via demonstrations available on the Internet sites. Sport and Physical Education were also areas of exclusion, with all participants recalling exclusion from games and sporting activities. If they were included in games, it was usually to assist as a scorer. Only on rare occasions did teachers incorporate activities using items available for students with vision impairment, such as “using a bright orange puck” in hockey. Participants were often sent “to the support center to work” or “to the gym to use equipment such as an exercise bike.” One participant was expected to join in on the same basis as other students. He recalled an experience of table tennis with some anguish, being acutely embarrassed and distressed when his aide ran around chasing him trying to “stick a bat under my armpit” while saying “you have to be like everyone else.” He added, “Do I look like everyone else? Do I look like I can play table tennis? That was not one of the best experiences.” No special equipment was provided for him. When asked if they had investigated swish, he replied “Exactly! My VT only advocated for me being like everybody else.”

Most participants felt they were competent in orientation and mobility skills having received training from Guide Dogs or Vision Australia. As one participant stated, “My VT didn’t know the school that well and her input wasn’t helpful.” Participants receiving orientation and mobility training appeared pleased with the support given, which included training in getting to and from school and in getting to know the school environment.

Socially, participants experienced isolation, and few had developed any friendships. VTs did not ensure that strategies were put in place to overcome this isolation. Most participants in this study were the only student with vision impairment at their school. As a participant recalled, “people were kind of hesitant to be near me because I was out of the normal – a strange blind guy with a stick.” Several participants claimed that they had no friends, while in the few instances, where friends were mentioned, these had invariably been made in the early primary years. No participant mentioned friendships with sighted peers originating from their secondary schooling. One participant had moved schools in secondary school but returned to her local school attended by students from her former primary school “because I was just not that happy. It was mostly to do with friends, I hadn’t made any.” She added, she still did not have a best friend, but those “people have helped me out – I think because most of those people I have known for years so they are used to me and what I can and can’t do.” A participant explained,

I am not going to lie. It is not easy . . . Even if you just have one or two people that talk to you or that you can hang out with is a good thing and can make a world of difference.

Most participants sat by themselves in class and reported being alone at lunchtimes.

Many participants had attended Guide Dog camps involving an overnight stay at Melbourne University and learning how to navigate the city. Participants commented, “you go around the city . . . it was actually pretty fun and there were a lot of good people there” and “camps are pretty awesome because students are, well you are with people that understand you, both teachers and students.” Participants enjoyed the interaction with other students with vision impairment, which gave an ease to interactions and common ground when discussing things. Participants mentioned their interactions with a sense of relief, as here were people who understood. Statements included, “I really enjoyed having the contact with other vision impaired people” and “the kids [vision impaired] understand and know what I am going through and I can relate to them; If I say I had trouble on this train line they say, oh yes I had trouble on that too . . . conversation flows”.

Various assistive technologies were introduced with limited success. VTs would suggest technologies to try resulting in participants feeling “like a guinea pig,” as rarely were participants given the instruction necessary to become competent users of the technology. Several participants used a Mimio, technology used to transfer an image of what was on the board onto their computer but found it unreliable as teachers did not understand its function, the units slipped down the board and pens dried out. The most innovative technology used was an iPad, and this was at a participant’s own initiative. Participants rarely compiled notes from images taken from the board because of the excessive time it would take and therefore did not have a set of notes similar to that of their peers. Students tried to organize their downloads into topic files but most admitted to poor organizational skills in this domain. As explained by a participant, “I don’t transcribe the notes a great deal as it takes too much time!” adding that not transcribing had probably had a negative effect on his learning. Participants also commonly found using assistive technology difficult, with accessibility hindered because school systems were incompatible with their software. Online learning environments were also problematic. Work in PDF format was difficult to access when using screen readers. Comments such as “technology has not been easy” were common.

Although all schools provide career guidance, participants with vision impairment did not have any individualized programs or training apropos of their specific needs. Work experience is a core curriculum expectation for all students, but not all students with vision impairment participated, including the participant receiving the most VT support. One participant organized his work experience with Guide Dogs, going to a school with an instructor to work with students on mobility. He found it interesting and stated, “Well I am thinking of doing orientation and mobility because [the guide dog mentor] is vision impaired too.” His very limited experience in careers and options is evident. VTs did not appear to have had any input with career guidance staff and participants did not recall any support.

Participants all felt some of their independent living skills were quite well developed, such as personal hygiene and food preparation. As they were senior students this was perhaps to be expected. All participants could make a cup of tea and most enjoyed cooking. As one participant laughingly commented, “at home I do a fair amount of cooking . . . I don’t have any concerns – I am not going to burn the house down or take off a finger or something!” Participants seemed aware of costs involved in having a mobile phone and money management issues. VT input appeared minimal for living skills at this stage, with parent interaction of more significance.

Recreation and leisure skills were affected by participants’ exclusion from participating in many sporting activities. Where changes could have been made allowing for the participation of students with vision impairment, none were made. Schools did not incorporate swish, a version of table tennis accessible to students with vision impairment when offering table tennis as a sporting activity to sighted students. VTs showed little attention to developing student skills in these areas where social participation with peers could have developed.

With respect to self-determination, all participants in this study could clearly articulate their specific vision disability and the resources and assistance they would need to access the curriculum if they were to be on a par with other students. However, participants related their concern not to “be a bother,” as exemplified by one participant who stated, “I could be more proactive, but I hate sort of being – I don’t want to be an inconvenience” Another stated “teachers just don’t understand, and it is embarrassing to ask during class. I don’t want to look like I am being weak.” Participants required more assistance and training from VTs to be self-advocates, to overcome negative attitudes and practices resulting in their exclusion in class and from subjects such as science and sport. One participant advised that “to be successful, persevere. Have a go at everything, and if things go wrong laugh it off and plough on. Keep calm and carry on.” He continued, “you can whine about the cards you are dealt, or just work with it.”

Sensory efficiency skills incorporating making the most of residual sight and using other senses to maximize educational and environmental access became a natural part of these senior participants’ experiences. They spoke of their well-developed hearing and listening skills and use of smell and touch in kitchen situations.

Discussion

In this study, the provision of the ECC by VTs to secondary school participants with vision impairment attending state and independent mainstream schools in Victoria was found to be inadequate in most areas, with the time VTs spent at schools insufficient for the task. Provision of the ECC and the impact on schooling were considered in the light of participant revelations about their education. Notwithstanding the limited support most participants had from their VT responsible for the ECC, some aspects were realized, particularly in orientation and mobility. Other areas including access to the curriculum, assistive technology skills, social skills, recreational skills, career counseling, and self-determination remain concerning, with participants revealing many hardships caused by ineffective curriculum delivery which was not challenged by VTs or relieved by independence skills (Douglas & Hewett, 2014). Past research has shown that time-poor VTs spend most of their time on academic and compensatory skills (Agran et al., 2007; K. Lohmeier et al., 2009; Wolffe et al., 2002). Compensatory skills effective for accessing the curriculum presented in the classroom remained underdeveloped (Brown et al., 2013; Reed & Curtis, 2011). Participants were restricted in their access to science classes, with findings supported by research contending, this reflects the stereotypical views by teachers and aides of what students with vision impairment could or could not do (Byrne & Rickards, 2011; Moon, Todd, Morton, & Ivey, 2011; Rule, Stefanich, Boody, & Peiffer, 2011).

VTs appeared unable to develop the adequate and effective use of assistive technology in the classroom to ensure equality of curriculum access, with research asserting that assistive technology may be underutilized because of inadequate knowledge by teachers and aides to provide effective instruction (Chambers, 2011; Griffin-Shirley, Parker, Smith, & Zhou, 2011). Quality instruction in assistive technology has been related to a student’s future social activity, continuation to postsecondary education, and paid employment (Wolffe & Kelly, 2011). Participants were not kept abreast of current technology and had little recourse to information from their schools.

All participants experienced isolation which suggests that VTs were also unable to satisfactorily deliver the ECC social component. Thus, the participants’ education was not inclusive, as accepting and belonging are regarded as central tenets of effective inclusion (Jones, 2014; Jones, White, Fauske, & Carr, 2011; Opie & Southcott, 2015). The negative effects of social isolation for students with vision impairment are well documented (Khadka, Ryan, Margrain, Woodhouse, & Davies, 2012).

Although the benefits of participation in physical education programs were noted as an important area of the ECC, participants in this study were often excluded, reflecting overprotective attitudes or lack of skills in adapting programs to meet the needs of all students (Haegele & Porretta, 2015; Lieberman et al., 2014). Ongoing concerns for the underemployment of people with vision impairment (Ravenscroft, 2013; Vision Australia, 2015) highlight the need for greater focus on career education as well as recreation and leisure skills, as it has been recognized that the latter are of particular importance in employment (Roth & Columna, 2011). Ravenscroft (2016) questions the balance of education for students with vision impairment, who may be gaining high academic results but because of the lack of attention paid to areas of independent living and social skills, fail to find employment. Essential collaboration between the VTs and others including HoES and teachers was minimal in this study, attributed to insufficient employment of VTs, lack of time, and the expectation to oversee, or implement all areas of the ECC (Brown & Beamish, 2012).

Concerns expressed by participants in this study are similar to those raised in the Commonwealth of Australia (2015) Disability Standards Review in which Vision Australia drew attention to the lack of VTs available, noting the amount and quality of the support was often dependent on location and allocation of funding. They noted curriculum materials were not being made available to students with vision impairment on the same basis as other students and in the students chosen format, with often unacceptably long delays in having the material provided; accommodations such as accessible software solutions, extra time for exams, and having those exams in accessible format were not provided; access and use of adaptive technology was hindered by funding and lack of proper training; software students needed to use was often not accessible or incompatible with school systems; and meaningful social participation was hindered by the exclusion from sports activities and clubs within schools (Vision Australia, 2015). Lack of accommodations was seen as a reflection of teachers’ interest, as measures such as extra time for exams and placing a student’s desk where there is no glare only requires “the willingness of the educator and the institution concerned to embrace the individual needs of student to enable a student to function at his or her full potential” (Blind Citizens Australia, 2015).

The impact of poor delivery of the ECC on student well-being is highlighted by the many heartfelt comments made by the participants regarding their sense of isolation, of not belonging, and of feeling a nuisance when asking for work to be given in accessible formats. It was apparent that participants were unable to be strong advocates for themselves in atmospheres where teachers were regarded as lacking understanding and were too busy to produce work in appropriate formats or e-mail, where participants were expected to “fit in” and where participants felt they would look weak if they asked for teacher assistance. VT services were inadequate to promote inclusive practices. Douglas and Hewett (2014) consider the ECC as part of a balanced solution, with its skills-based approach to independence to be balanced with an individualized approach to preparing young people for life after school. McLinden, Douglas, Cobb, Hewett, and Ravenscroft (2016) note the importance of the specialist teachers’ role in ensuring that the student’s environment is “structured to promote learning throughout their education (‘access to learning’)” and in supporting the student to “learn distinctive skills in order to afford more independent learning (‘learning to access’)” (p. 179).

Recommendations

From the revelations of the experiences of participants in this study, recommendations are proposed which may have made their educational experiences more inclusive. How components of the ECC may be delivered when and where needed, given the time constraints of the school day and the availability of VTs, remains an ongoing debate (Grimmett, Pogrund, & Griffin-Shirley, 2011; K. Lohmeier et al., 2009; Wolffe et al., 2002). As VTs appear unable to deliver the essential elements of the ECC to participants in the limited time they have available, ascertaining who can accept responsibility for their implementation remains to be resolved. There appears a shortage of VTs available (Beamish & Brown, 2012) and no indication of a change. Ideally, this situation would be further investigated and rectified, but working within these constraints, it is asserted that if all teachers were to become more aware of the ECC and understood the requirements, participants in this study may have had a better chance of more aspects being covered. The lack of classroom teacher understanding of vision impairment was a common statement by all participants in this study. When discussing the ECC with HoES, it was felt that ignorance may have resulted in difficulties being exacerbated for participants. HoES felt that they could have been more proactive in meeting the needs of the participants and provided the information to teachers had they known of the difficulties specific to vision impairment. While it is often advocated that the ECC be delivered by VTs (McLinden et al., 2016; Ravenscroft, 2013; Sapp & Hatlen, 2010), provision of the ECC by teachers’ other than VTs has been shown to be possible. Research shows physical education programs delivered meaningful opportunities in their classes which addressed recreation as well as all the other areas, including social skills, orientation and mobility, self-determination, technology, activities of daily living, and independence (Lieberman et al., 2014). For this to occur, it is seen as imperative for the teacher to work in collaboration with VTs and also the school, parents, orientation and mobility instructors, and their students with vision impairment. It is recommended that more research is carried out in this area.

With the scarcity of VTs, their high cost and low hours available to work with participants and school personnel, education in the ECC for secondary classroom teachers who have a student with vision impairment in their class seems a necessary and logical step in helping to provide for these students’ needs. Victorian teachers, as part of their compulsory 20 hours professional development for registration, are now “required to build capacity to teach learners with disability” (Victorian Institute of Teachers, 2016). Many options are available for teachers, with four specific courses of professional learning offered. These courses focus on understanding, assessment, and classroom support of students with autism spectrum disorders; speech, language, and communication needs; dyslexia and significant difficulties in reading; and understanding hearing loss; but there is nothing available on understanding vision impairment. The addition of a course on vision impairment could be a way to ensure any teacher of a student with vision impairment better understands vision impairment and their responsibility in providing an equitable education. Although competencies are listed for VTs, (Ravenscroft, 2015), abilities in areas published by the National College for Teaching & Leadership (2015), Annex A, could be a starting point for production of a unit to support teachers. Teachers need to be versed in the knowledge and skills required by students with vision impairment due to their unique disability-specific needs. Teachers will need to add to their knowledge in all ECC areas to address issues such as deficits in social skills, including how to assess the student’s social skills and provide targeted instruction for the areas of deficit. Issues of integrating the ECC into their student’s daily schedules, finding time for direct instruction as needed, and ensuring meaningful discussion with the student regarding their support should be addressed, understanding that individual differences in vision impairment occur as in all populations, and educational programs need to be tailored accordingly. Teachers and students would still require essential input from VTs but would be better equipped to manage with the limited VT visits available.

Conclusion and implication for practice

Although the limitations of a small study are acknowledged, such rigorous single-subject research may disconfirm expectations, reveal the unexpected, and offer an evidence base for educational practice (Horner et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2009). This small phenomenological study giving voice to students about their schooling experiences exposed a lack of classroom teacher understanding of vision impairment, the limited extent of ECC delivery, and consequently the need to examine further delivery options due to restricted access to VTs. It is apparent that classroom teachers may need to take on more responsibility from VTs, given that more VTs are unlikely to be forthcoming. Recommendations include the provision of a module of learning, available for teachers who have a student with vision impairment in their class, which could be added to those currently available as part of the professional development required for teacher registration. Teachers, collaborating with VTs, orientation and mobility specialists, teachers, parents, and the student, may then be better placed to incorporate skills and competencies of the ECC into their classroom practice to ensure the needs of students with vision impairment are met and their education more inclusive. Further research into the need for a training module, its content and its effectiveness in promoting the implementation of the ECC, and more inclusive educational experiences for students with vision impairment is recommended.

Limitations

This was a small study of senior students with vision impairment in attendance at a few city schools in Victoria, Australia. While it may have relevance to the support of other students with vision impairment in the pursuit of an inclusive education for them, no generalizations can be made. Further extensive research involving a greater number of participants in various schools, both city and rural, private and state, is required.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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