Examining physical education experiences at integrated and residential schools for students with visual impairments

Abstract

This study examined how individuals who experienced physical education in both integrated and residential school settings viewed their physical education experiences. A retrospective interpretative phenomenological approach (IPA) was used, and five adults with visual impairments (aged 20–35 years; three males, two females) were enrolled in this study. Data collection included semi-structured telephone interviews and reflective interview notes, which were analyzed thematically using a three-step process. Two interrelated themes emerged from the data. In the first theme – feelings about being included and excluded – participants described that across school settings, inclusivity and exclusivity were central to how they understood their physical education experiences. The second theme – support needs met at residential schools – described how perceived teacher support and feelings of relatedness with peers were identified as important factors related to their willingness to explore the environment and engage in physical education curricula.

Keywords

Blindness inclusion lived experiences phenomenology special schools

Regular engagement in physical activity during youth has been identified as a volitional lifestyle behavior that can help reduce the likelihood of developing physiological (e.g., obesity, diabetes) and psychological (e.g., anxiety, depression) health issues throughout the lifespan (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2016; Zhu et al., 2019). As such, guidelines internationally suggest that youth engage in at least 60 min of daily physical activity to garner these health-related benefits (CDC, 2016; Tremblay et al., 2016; World Health Organization, 2010). Unfortunately, however, research consistently identifies youth with visual impairments as being inactive (Augestad & Jiang, 2015; Kozub & Oh, 2004). Because those with visual impairments tend not to engage in sufficient amounts of physical activity, they may be at risk for developing health-related conditions. For example, in a cross-sectional analysis of the 2011–2012 National Survey of Children’s Health, Haegele et al. (2019) found adolescents with severe visual impairments to report higher rates of poor health compared to those without visual impairments.

School-based physical education is one particular setting of interest when considering physical activity engagement among students with visual impairments. According to Kriemler and colleagues (2011), school-based physical education is among the most common places for youth to learn about and engage in physical activity. The goal of physical education is to develop the knowledge, skills, and confidence necessary to enjoy a lifetime of physical activity (Society of Health and Physical Educators, 2013).

Internationally, more students with disabilities, including those with visual impairments, are being educated in integrated physical education classes with their peers without visual impairments than ever before (Haegele, 2019). The term integrated is used purposefully throughout this article to highlight the educational placement or setting in which students with visual impairments receive their education with students without disabilities (Haegele et al., 2020). This term is distinct from the term inclusive which refers to educational experiences which are guided by philosophies associated with inclusion whereby individuals with various learning styles and education needs experience a sense of belonging, acceptance, and value within a group (Spencer-Cavaliere, & Watkinson, 2010; Stainback & Stainback, 1996). Thus, as explained by Haegele (2019; p. 388), “an important distinction is that while inclusion as a philosophy promotes successful learning for students with a variety of learning and education needs (Block, 1999), integration more simply refers to the setting in which education occurs.” When examining literature pertaining to physical education experiences among persons with visual impairments in integrated contexts, predominately challenging experiences have been reported (Alves et al., 2018; de Schipper et al., 2017; Haegele et al., 2020; Haegele & Zhu, 2017). For example, research has demonstrated that it is not uncommon for students with visual impairments to be treated inequitably by their physical education teachers, including being removed or isolated from activities, because of perceptions of inability (Lieberman et al., 2006). Instances like this can influence peers to view classmates with visual impairments as incapable during physical education, which may lead to negative social interactions, such as bullying or other belittling behaviors (Alves et al., 2018; de Schipper et al., 2017; Haegele & Kirk, 2018). Because of these negative experiences, youth with visual impairments may elect to engage in sedentary hobbies during leisure time, both during and outside of school, rather than physically active pursuits (Augestad & Jiang, 2015).

While the majority of students with visual impairments receive physical education in integrated contexts, other contexts are available. For example, students with visual impairments attending classes at residential schools for students who are blind (herein referred to as residential schools) engage in physical education programs specifically tailored for those with visual impairments. According to Haegele and Lieberman (2016), physical education in schools for students who are blind include a more direct focus on the needs of the students by providing a well-rounded program with services that are designed for students with visual impairments. With properly trained physical educators, who know and understand the needs of the students (Haegele et al., 2017), physical education at residential schools are likely to provide meaningful experiences. For example, Kurkova et al. (2015) reported that students with visual impairments in residential schools had high percentages of positive views and feelings toward physical education. Furthermore, in a study by Haegele and colleagues (2017), which examined reflections of adults with visual impairments toward their physical education experiences at residential schools, participants reported feeling included, which in turn decreased their personal perceptions of inability and assisted in reducing the fear of being marginalized during physical education.

While research is growing that examines the perspectives of those with visual impairments about physical education experiences, studies have generally focused on either integrated (Alves et al., 2018; Haegele & Zhu, 2017; Lieberman et al., 2006) or residential school contexts (Haegele et al., 2017; Kurkova et al., 2015). To date, no research is available that specifically focuses on the experiences of individuals who attended physical education in both settings. Examining the viewpoints of those who experienced physical education in both contexts can help researchers understand positive and negative attributes of both settings, from individuals who had those unique experiences. These elucidated positive or negative attributes may then be applied to then be utilized to design future physical education experiences for individuals with visual impairments in either or both setting. That is, positive attributes that emerge from residential school contexts may be considered and applied to integrated physical education contexts, and vice versa. Examining these contexts from the viewpoints of those experiencing both settings, rather than individuals who have experienced one or the other, can help reduce the influence that personal characteristics may have in informing one’s opinion. For example, a participant’s interest, or lack of interest, in sporting activities would likely inform their viewpoint toward both settings similarly, therefore differences in opinions about the contexts would likely be due to the context itself. This analysis, therefore, helps push forward current research focusing on different individuals who experienced only one of the two settings. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine how individuals who experienced physical education in both integrated and residential school settings viewed their physical education class experiences.

Methods

Research approach

This study was retrospective, in that it asked adult participants to reflect on their experiences as students. There are two main reasons for completing this research in a retrospective manner. First, retrospective studies allow the participants to gain some emotional distance from experiences and events that may be challenging for them to discuss (Haegele & Zhu, 2017). Second, performing the interviews retrospectively allowed for the interviewer to cover experiences in their entirety (i.e., their entire physical education experiences) without the threat of affecting them (Haegele & Zhu, 2017).

This research was completed under an interpretivist research paradigm, with assumptions guided by a relativist ontology (i.e., reality is socially constructed) and a subjective epistemology (i.e., knowledge is co-created between the researcher and researched). Consistent with the interpretivist paradigm, this study engaged in an interpretative phenomenological approach (IPA) to investigate the experiences of individuals with visual impairments in two distinct physical education contexts. IPA is a qualitative research approach concerned with understanding how participants make sense of their personal and social experiences, and the meanings the experiences hold for participants (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). IPA has phenomenological (i.e., focus on lived experience), hermeneutic (i.e., interpretation by the researcher to gain insight into the experiences of participants), and ideographical (i.e., focus on in-depth analyses of participants) roots (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). When research is done using an IPA approach, two aims must be considered. First, the researchers must attempt to understand the participants’ world and “what it is like” while focusing on specific experiences (Larkin et al., 2006). Second, the researcher has to perform an interpretative analysis that includes elucidating specific meanings and feelings that participants credit to those experiences of interest (Larkin et al., 2006).

Participants

Participants were recruited for this study through an electronic call for participants that was distributed through a listserv of adults with visual impairments housed in the United States with interest in participating in research. The call for participants included the purpose, time commitment, and eligibility criteria to participate. Eligibility criteria for this study included the following: (a) being 18 to 35 years of age, (b) had a visual impairment while receiving their K-12 education, (c) participated in physical education classes in both integrated and residential school settings for at least 1 year, and (d) willing to complete a phone interview lasting approximately 60–90 min. Interested parties were asked to email the lead author to express interest in participating, and the lead author then distributed a brief screening questionnaire to ensure that potential participants met stated eligibility criteria. Those who met eligibility criteria were then asked to participate in the study.

Eligible participants were asked to consent to participate prior to official enrollment in the study. Those who consented and completed interviews included three male and two female adults with visual impairments (aged 20–35 years). Two of the participants identified as Caucasian American, two as Asian American, and one as Hispanic American. All participants were assigned pseudonyms to protect their identity. See Table 1 for more detailed descriptions of the participants’ demographic information.

Table 1.

Participants’ demographic information.

Name	Gender	Age (years)	Race/Ethnicity	Visual impairment	Years in integrated PE	Years in residential school PE
Ali	Male	20	Asian American	Complete blindness in left eye, low vision in right eye	K–5th and 7th–12th grade	6th grade
Heidi	Female	25	Caucasian	20/200 visual acuity in left eye, complete blindness in right eye	1st–12th grade	Kindergarten
Joseph	Male	28	Caucasian	Complete blindness	K–9th and 12th grade	10th–11th grade
Mio	Female	33	Asian American	Complete blindness	Pre-K–3rd grade	4th–12th grade
Robert	Male	35	Hispanic American	Complete blindness	KG–10th grade	11th–12th grade

PE: physical education.

Data collection

Data collection procedures for this study included semi-structured telephone interviews and reflective interview notes. The main source of data was audio-recorded, semi-structured telephone interviews. Telephone interviews were used due to the potentially dispersed location of the participants and to enable time-efficient participant recruitment. To initiate the interview process, participants received a phone call from the interviewer (the first author) at a predetermined time that was convenient for both the participant and the interviewer. The interviews started with a description of the study purpose and a brief background summary provided by the interviewer regarding her relationship to the project and participants in the project. Specifically, the interviewer stated that she (a) was employed as an adapted physical education teacher in a public-school district, (b) worked at a sports camp for individuals who are blind or visually impaired, and (c) was pursuing her master’s degree in adapted physical education. The interviews followed an interview guide, which was inspired by the research approach and purpose of the study, to ensure that similar questions were asked across all participants. The interview guide was adopted from previous research with individuals with visual impairments (Haegele & Zhu, 2017) and was adapted to meet the needs of the current project. Revisions to the guide were made based on the recommendations of a panel of experts, including three researchers with expertise in physical education, adapted physical education, and special education. Interviews concluded after interview guide questions were exhausted and participants confirmed that they had no additional pertinent content to add. Sample interview prompts included the following: (a) can you please describe your experiences, and the meaning you placed on those experiences, while in integrated physical education classes?; (b) can you please describe your experiences, and the meaning you placed on those experiences, when enrolled at a residential school?; and (c) what differences and similarities existed between your experiences in both school contexts? Data collection procedures were approved by the institutional review board at the authors’ institution.

During and immediately after the interviews, reflective interview notes were taken. The reflective notes contained the interviewer’s initial feelings about the conversation, as well as some initial thoughts about themes that emerged during the interview. By taking reflective notes throughout the interview process, the interviewer was able to return to the setting of the interview during the time of the analysis to ensure reflexivity (Walker et al., 2013).

Data analysis and trustworthiness

Once interviews were completed, the audio files were transcribed verbatim by the interviewer. The purpose of the transcription process was to gain a semantic, meaningful record of the interview. Once the transcriptions were complete, a three-step thematic development process guided by IPA took place. The purpose of this process was to show results in the form of the participants’ personal experiences (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). First, the interviewer immersed herself in the data by reading the transcripts and associated notes multiple times, as well as by re-listening to the audio-recordings of the interviews, to become intimate with the data (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). The second step was for the interviewer to reduce the documents (i.e., transcripts, field notes) for each individual participant into emergent themes (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). The document reduction process was done by constantly comparing data at the participant level. Once the emergent themes were found at the participant level, the last step was to search for any patterns or connections between the different participants using constant comparison (J. A. Smith et al., 2009).

Several items, presented by Yardley (2000), were taken into consideration to enhance the trustworthiness of this study. First, to expose biases, the interviewer described her positionality to participants at the beginning of each interview. It was recognized that the background knowledge and experiences of the interviewer inescapably influenced the interviewing, data coding, and research process in general (B. Smith & McGannon, 2018). In addition, an abundant number of quotes from transcripts were presented in the results to ensure the participants’ voices were central throughout the project and safeguard against themes simply echoing existing findings (J. A. Smith et al., 2009). However, traditional methods to reduce researcher subjectivity, such as bracketing, were not used in this study as they are considered incongruent with the strong role the researcher plays in IPA studies (J. A. Smith, 2004). In addition, while commonly used in other research paradigms, member checking was not employed due to recent criticisms of member checking as a benchmark for rigor (B. Smith & McGannon, 2018) and inherent conflict these methods have with phenomenological research (Howard et al., 2019). The rigor of the study was supported through the use of an interview guide that was initially developed for research with individuals with visual impairments (Haegele & Zhu, 2017) and then adapted to align with the purposes of this analysis. Transparency and coherence were supported through clearly describing the researcher position and reflexivity, the participant recruitment process, interviews, transcription, and analysis procedures (Yardley, 2000). The final principle suggested by Yardley, impact and importance, lies with how the research community finds the study at hand and therefore is ultimately judged by those consuming the study.

Results and discussion

Based on the data analysis, two interrelated themes emerged from the participants’ transcripts and reflective interview notes: (a) feelings about being included and excluded and (b) feelings about support across school settings. The first theme is organized by subtheme, which depicts viewpoints toward exclusionary and inclusionary experiences in integrated and resident school contexts. Themes are described, exemplified, and interpreted within the context of the current literature below.

Feelings about being included and excluded

Predominately excluded in integrated classes

Across school settings, feelings about being included or excluded from activities were central to how the participants understood their physical education experiences. Although not common, several participants expressed experiencing some instances of being included during their integrated physical education classes. Similar to previous research (Herold & Dandolo, 2009; Lieberman et al., 2006), the participants in the current study stated that positive experiences were related to the ability of participants’ teachers to make activities accessible. For example, Heidi recalled feeling included during games that used a projectile (i.e., a ball), because “we would use a beep ball or balls with bells. We would have all the students use it.” Similarly, Joseph recalled speaking with his teacher about using sound sources in physical education, which resulted in:

All of my classmates started wearing bells. That was one inclusive step they took during class. Students put bells on during games and stuff. Once you start pointing it out, people can be pretty creative with their solutions. (Joseph)

The experiences of Joseph and Heidi, where physical educators provided accessible modifications to activities, support prior assertions about the importance of teacher behaviors in enhancing students’ experiences (Block & Obrusnikova, 2007; Herold & Dandolo, 2009; Lieberman et al., 2006). These assertions were further supported by Ali, who recalled his physical educator stating, “you [Ali] tell us what you need, and we will do our best to make it work.” Ali continued by reflecting that,

There were times I felt like there was no visual impairment. It felt like I was just another student in the classroom at the point. I actually looked forward to gym class my freshman year [in integrated physical education].

It is clear that, based on the participants’ narratives, there were some occasions where the actions of the participants’ physical educators made particular effort to include students in activities, which also influenced their subjective feelings of acceptance and belonging that are inherent in inclusive educational experiences (Stainback & Stainback, 1996).

While the participants noted instances of being included during their integrated physical education classes, negative experiences associated with being excluded were more commonly described (reflective interview notes). Consistent with previous research examining physical education experiences among students with disabilities (Goodwin & Watkinson, 2000), including those with visual impairments (Haegele & Kirk, 2018; Haegele & Zhu, 2017), the feeling of being “left out” or “pushed aside” was abundantly reported among participants. For the most part, participants recalled not understanding the reason why they were pushed aside during their physical education classes but theorized that it was likely associated with their vision. For example, Ali stated, “I don’t know whether I was taken out of middle school (physical education) activities because of my sight, but it looked or felt that way.” Ali’s narrative reinforced previous research (i.e., Haegele & Zhu, 2017; Lieberman et al., 2006) which noted it is not uncommon for students with visual impairments to be removed from integrated physical education activities because of perceptions of inability related to vision. The participants noted these types of exclusionary instances as being particularly challenging. For example, Mio recalled that “the overall experience [of being put to the side] was discouraging because you’re just on the side line. Trying to get included in the activities is a huge challenge.” Similarly, Zachary recalled,

There was a lot of exclusion because they [teachers] didn’t design it for people with a disability or someone who couldn’t see, it was designed for people that were “normal” and had full functions of their body. There were kids in wheelchairs that couldn’t participate, there were kids with crutches and stuff, and they had to sit out every time. That builds a gap between you and your peers when you are trying to participate, and they are not giving you enough information to succeed.

Zachary provided insight into the potential social repercussions, in this instance social isolation, that may arise when students with visual impairments are excluded from activities with their peers. Unfortunately, the reflections of the participants, who recalled instances where they were separated from their peers because of their teachers’ behaviors toward those with visual impairments, are consistent with the extant literature where instances of social isolation are consistently reported by persons with disabilities (Goodwin & Watkinson, 2000; Spencer-Cavaliere, & Watkinson, 2010).

Feelings about being included at residential schools

Unlike in integrated contexts, where experiences were described as predominately negative, physical education experiences at residential schools were described as being mostly positive. Largely, the participants’ positive views toward physical education at residential schools were due to experiencing being included in activities that were dictated by the teachers as well as peers. For example, when it came to the physical education instructors, Mio stated,

They [physical educators] would encourage me to play basketball. I was like, I don’t think I can do it, I’ll hit my own head. But I was able to do it, which was very exciting. It was very cool that I could actually participate.

Similarly, when reflecting about integrated settings, the behaviors of physical educators were identified as a critical element to the success of the participants in residential settings as well. This was highlighted by Mio, who viewed encouragement from her physical educator to engage in activities that seemed impossible as critical to her success. This type of encouragement, and the success associated with it, can help those with visual impairments understand their potential in physical activity environments (Haegele & Zhu, 2017). For example, Zachary noted,

It [experiences with physical educators at residential schools] influenced the way I see visual impairment. They were trained specially to deal with this type of thing. It made me feel more included, it made me feel more part of the unit.

Importantly, Zachary resolved that the abilities of the physical education staff, and his success in these accommodating programs, made him feel like part of the group. The subjective feeling of belonging and sense of community that he described, while not in an integrated setting, is well aligned with Stainback and Stainback’s (1996) conceptualization of inclusive education. This finding is consistent with those from Haegele and colleagues (2017) that suggested physical education at residential schools can feel more inclusive than those at integrated public schools. Importantly, the participants noted that having other students with whom they could relate and who understood their visual impairment contributed to their success and feelings of being included in class.

Support needs met at residential schools

When asked about their preferences for physical education placements, the participants expressed an overwhelming preference for their physical education experiences in the residential schools. Largely, these feelings were associated with the feeling of being supported by their teachers and peers. Perceived teacher support and feelings of relatedness with peers have been identified as important factors related to students’ willingness to explore the environment and engage in curricula during educational endeavors (Patrick & Ryan, 2005; Ryan & Patrick, 2001), including physical education (Cox & Williams, 2008).

Support from parents or teachers, whether it is positive or negative, can influence students’ participation in physical activities (Block & Obrusnikova, 2007). Specifically, positive experiences in physical education, including engagement and success, are often influenced by supportive teacher attitudes and peer relationships (Coates & Vickerman, 2008). Predominately, the participants described instances of positive support more often when they reflected on their self-contained physical education experiences. For example, similar to previous research (Haegele et al., 2017), Mio and Heidi both noted feeling well supported by their teachers during physical education at the school. Specifically, Mio stated, “I had all the support and all the assistance I needed to help me succeed” and Heidi recalled that, “the staff is trained in verbal and descriptive communication. That provided for a more fruitful one-on-one experience.” In addition to receiving support from their teachers, being in a school for students with visual impairments provided a forum for receiving support from peers, with students helping one another. This point came to light when Joseph stated,

I think that’s one thing that sticks out to me most from that class, the ability to say “Hey, I can’t do this like this, can we find another method to it.” Then everyone takes a second and says, let’s try this, let’s try this, everyone is with the same disability or around the same disability, so it does not take long to come up with a solution because then you have six or seven creative minds on it who are all about to face the same challenge.

Having a group of people who see an activity from the same perspective can be beneficial when trying to figure out how to assist everyone to complete the same task. This finding is consistent with research results from Haegele and colleagues (2017), who noted that participants with visual impairments reflected on having more similarities with their peers when attending a school for people with visual impairments. In addition, Heidi, Ali, and Zach each talked about how the small class sizes in the school for students with visual impairments made a difference in the support they received due to more one-on-one interaction. Participant narratives described these settings as supportive, in that teachers were better to tailor the lessons to the individual students rather than just to the class as a whole (reflective interview notes).

Scholars suggest that while properly conceptualized physical education classes that provide student support can enhance success and show positive benefits, poorly planned classes where students do not feel supported can result in adverse effects, such as withdrawal from physical education activities (Haegele & Zhu, 2017; Lieberman et al., 2006). Although one participant, Ali, recalled a positive and supportive experience with his teachers during integrated settings, all other participants reported that it was difficult to gain positive assistance and support from their teachers in integrated physical education classes. For example, when asked about her integrated physical education classes as a whole, Mio stated that, “It was ok, because I didn’t get too much assistance.” She then elaborated by stating,

In the public school, it was more like they were telling everyone what to do and all that instead of explaining from a visually impaired person’s perspective. And it was hard for someone who has no seeing to understand how to do and there was no one trained on how to assist.

According to Mio, having a teacher know how to assist someone with a visual impairment or explain activities properly could have made a difference in terms of the success of her experiences. Also, with a large number of students in classes and few support staff, participants noted that it was even harder for teachers to get to know students and their individualized needs. As Joseph stated, “class size is important because there is not enough one-on-one time to understand someone’s abilities and disabilities.” The above statements are an example of how smaller class sizes and more one-on-one interaction inherent to residential school education could be beneficial to the students’ learning environment.

Limitations and conclusions

The purpose of this study was to examine how individuals who experienced physical education in both integrated and residential school settings viewed their physical education class experiences. There were two main limitations to this study. First, this study utilized telephone interviews, which can limit the researcher’s ability to capture any gestural or facial expressions from the participants. Second, this study was retrospective in nature, and it is logical to suggest that the experiences of the participants may not completely reflect current practices of today. More specifically, education has evolved over time, including the proliferation of strategies and resources to effectively educate students with disabilities in integrated contexts since the 1990s. Some participants, particularly Mio (33 years old) and Robert (35 years old), may have been enrolled in their school-based programs during the infancy of the “inclusion movement,” which influenced the development of many of these emerging educational resources. Therefore, their experiences are unlikely to reflect current physical education practice. The ages of all participants must be taken into consideration when consuming the findings of this study, and future research should consider engaging currently enrolled students to help elucidate what experiences in integrated and residential school for the blind physical education programs are like today.

To the knowledge of the authors, this study was the first that specifically focused on examining experiences in two physical education contexts. The results of this study have several practical implications. For example, results demonstrated that small class sizes and individualized attention inherent to physical education classes at residential schools was viewed positively by participants and may be implemented in integrated school. Furthermore, the participants’ views were favorable toward teachers who displayed a willingness to adapt lessons or give the students a chance to try activities in both settings. Thus, consistent with research among persons with disabilities (Block & Obrusnikova, 2007), it appeared that the teachers’ behaviors were among the most critical elements to positive educational experiences across settings.

Utilizing a retrospective, IPA approach, two interrelated themes emerged from this study. The first theme – feelings about inclusion and exclusion – depicted the participants’ reflections about inclusion and exclusion across school settings, as well their feelings about those experiences. It was clear, based on the participants’ reflections, that while elements of inclusive education were available in integrated physical education, it was uncommon. It appeared, however, that physical education at residential schools more closely depicted subjective feelings of belonging and acceptance commonly associated with inclusive philosophies (Stainback & Stainback, 1996). The second theme – support needs met at residential schools – depicted participants’ views toward the support they received in each educational context and their feelings about support across school settings. This theme demonstrated participants’ views toward some inherent characteristics of integrated physical education contexts (e.g., class sizes) that hindered their ability to receive needed support for success. Therefore, based on the participants’ narratives, it appeared that they were more likely to experience inclusive physical education experiences in residential school contexts in comparison with integrated public-school settings.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Justin A Haegele

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