Audio description in the theater: Assessment of satisfaction and quality of the experience among individuals with visual impairment

Abstract

Purpose: Audio description (AD) is the systematic method of describing images and visual events to people who are blind or visually impaired (B/VI). AD facilitates access to cultural events such as movies, theater, and professional conferences, and it is aimed at enhancing the partaker’s experience. The current study investigates the impact of AD on the quality of the theater experience during the initial stages of implementation of AD service in theaters in Israel. Specifically, the study analyzes the satisfaction of B/VI theater patrons from AD service as well as the quality of the AD theater experience in relation to the complete three-pronged “AD package”: auditory narration, a touch tour, and preshow notes. Methods: In all, 83 legally B/VI participants were recruited through social networks. Mean age 54 (±14); 58% women. Quantitative questionnaires were developed to assess the satisfaction, quality of the experience, and aspects of accessibility. Five theater productions were available with and without AD. Each participant attended two different plays, one which was audio described and one which was not. Half of the participants saw the AD play first and half saw the non-AD play first. Results: 87% of the participants reported high overall satisfaction from the AD narration service. In addition, high satisfaction was reported concerning the AD device (67%), pre-show notes (85%), and touch tour (77%). A comparison of the quality of the experience between plays with AD versus without revealed a significantly enhanced experience (p < .001) when the play was audio described. In addition, several general accessibility issues were identified that impede participation. Conclusion: AD is an important service that should be used widely to enhance the engagement of B/VI individuals in cultural events. Furthermore, it is imperative that AD be provided alongside comprehensive accessibility considerations.

Keywords

Accessibility audio description blind cultural event leisure activities visually impaired

Introduction

Visual impairment is prevalent throughout the world (Brouwer et al., 2008), affecting an estimated 234 million people above the age of 15 years – 81% of whom are over 50 years of age (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018). In the State of Israel, the locale of the study presented, 24,000 adults are registered as legally blind, and over 200,000 are visually impaired (The Israel Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs and Social Services, 2014).

Regarding the needs of blind/visually impaired (B/VI) individuals, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ (2011) Healthy People 2020 report emphasizes the need to encourage and support participation in recreational activities and social events. Partaking in movies, theater productions, parades, spectator sports, and museum exhibitions provides an opportunity for leisure and social interaction, which are identified as key components for enhanced well-being and overall health promotion (Berger et al., 2013; Chang et al., 2014; Doble & Santha, 2008). The International Classification of Functioning (ICF) highlights the importance of the quality of the recreational experience as well as the level of involvement in such activities (WHO, 2001).

For B/VI participants, however, full engagement in such activities may be challenging. Cultural events are multisensory experiences. In order to fully comprehend and appreciate these events, therefore, visual input and the ability to integrate visual, auditory, and tactile information alongside cognitive skills is imperative. It is thus critical to identify and address key environmental factors that may facilitate or alternatively deter participation for B/VI individuals (WHO, 2018).

One form of enhancement implemented at cultural events for the B/VI population is audio description (AD). In AD, visual content is made accessible to B/VI individuals during such cultural events as theater productions, movie screenings, television shows, and museum exhibitions. The goal of AD is to make the cultural experience more accessible by presenting information otherwise concealed from the visually impaired person.

The primary component of AD, descriptive narration, is a spoken account provided alongside the existing soundtrack or dialogue of an event. Often the narration is pre-recorded; however, during “live” events such as theater performances, the narration is relayed in real-time by an audio “describer” sitting in an acoustically insulated booth. In such cases, the audio describer wears a wireless headset and describes the visual content related to the scenery, clothing, lighting, body language, and any other essential elements of the performance. The narration is provided during segments in the performance when no verbal interaction or important auditory information is taking place. Timing, relevance of information, and concise manner of presentation are key components of the narration, which tries to augment the experience for B/VI listeners without bombarding them (The American Council of the Blind, n.d.; Office of Communications [Ofcom], 2017).

To enhance the AD experience, the following supplementary elements are sometimes added: a “touch tour” and pre-show notes. Touch tours are usually given to groups of B/VI individuals prior to the beginning of a play, and they include a tactile exploration of props, scenery, and stage-layout, as well as an opportunity to meet the actors and auditory describer and gain familiarity with their voices (Eardley-Weaver, 2013; Fryer, 2016). The pre-show notes enable participants to listen in advance (either at the theater via a headset or at home) to a summary of the plot and to other relevant content information (Corral & Lladó, 2011; Fryer, 2016; Romero-Fresco & Fryer, 2013). The auditory narration, touch tour, and pre-show notes can be viewed as a three-pronged “AD package,” varying the conventional medium through which theater information is conveyed and aiming to improve comprehension and enjoyment of the performance.

The AD theater initiative in Israel

Israel’s first course to train professional audio describers was launched in 2014 by the National Insurance’s Services for People with Disabilities. This initiative followed the successful implementation of AD in Europe and in the United States (Benecke, 2004; Romero-Fresco & Fryer, 2013; Snyder, 2005). The course was a first step toward establishing Israeli AD standards and toward passing legislation obligating institutions to make cultural content accessible to B/VI individuals.

The initial course included 14 students and was developed and held in partnership with Israel’s Central Library for the Blind and the Communications Department of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. The course included such theoretical principles as grammar, diction, and word selection, and it adhered to an “objective” AD narration style (Ofcom, 2017). Parallel to the course, 10 theaters in Israel were adapted with AD equipment: microphones, sound mixer, and headphone receivers. The current research assesses the three-pronged “AD package” as implemented under the Israeli initiative, and it situates the findings within the context of AD and accessibility literature.

Literature review

Early research in the field of AD concentrated in general on television and films and in particular upon narrative components pertaining to linguistics, language comprehension, and AD tools and techniques – thus aligning AD with the professional field of translation (Pettitt et al., 1996; Romero-Fresco & Fryer, 2013; Schmeidler & Kirchner, 2001). Studies examined the decision-making process of the audio describer and ways in which AD is shaped by the demands of the text. In addition, research assessed the impact of the auditory narration upon participants’ comprehension of the performance. Initial studies largely employed qualitative tools such as interviews and short questionnaires (Braun, 2008; Hutchinson & Eardley, 2018; Walczak & Fryer, 2017). There remains a paucity of quantitative research assessing the experience of the auditory narration as well as the additional components of the “AD package.”

Recent research has begun to look beyond language comprehension and to address the broader AD experience (Braun, 2007, 2008; Chmiel & Mazur, 2012; Romero-Fresco & Fryer, 2013; Schmeidler & Kirchner, 2001; Walczak & Fryer, 2017; Walczak & Rubaj, 2014). For example, Ramos Caro and Rojo López (2014) implemented a self-report questionnaire and compared the influence of AD on the emotional responses of sighted and AD users during film viewing.

Another example here comes from the work of Fryer and Freeman (2012), who focus on the concept of presence in their investigation of the effects of AD. Presence is defined as the subjective experience of a person in an environment, although they are physically located in another space. It is a period of suspended belief that can often be experienced by an individual while reading a novel, listening to music, or attending a theatrical performance (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). The analysis of presence enables a comparison of the AD experience in people with and without VI because it is an overall perspective not dependent on a single sensory input (Walczak & Fryer, 2017). Spatial presence, engagement, and content comprehension were found to be greater for those with VI using AD than for sighted individuals without AD. The effects of age, degree of VI, and cognitive status on the ability to be present in the event was noted (Fryer and Freeman, 2012). In addition, a descriptive auditory narration approach presented during film clips was found to prompt higher levels of presence than the objective narration method (Walczak & Fryer, 2017). These results need to be further explored to better understand the impact of the AD service on the quality of the experience.

Addressing the overarching goal of enhancing participation in cultural events for the B/VI population, it is imperative to place the AD process within the broader context of accessibility. In 2006, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), recognizing the importance of accessibility in the physical, social, economic, and cultural environments; in health and education; in transportation; and in information and communication (including information about new technologies). Article 30 of the convention relates specifically to participation in cultural life, recreation, leisure, and sport:

Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to take part on an equal basis with others in cultural life, and shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that persons with disabilities: Enjoy access to cultural materials in accessible formats; Enjoy access to television programs, films, theater, and other cultural activities, in accessible formats; Enjoy access to places for cultural performances or services, such as theaters, museums, cinemas, libraries and tourism services. (The UN, 2006 article 30, p. 27)

Building upon existing research, the current study investigates the impact of AD on the quality of the theater experience as implemented in the Israeli initiative. Specifically, the study analyzes the satisfaction of B/VI theater patrons with the three-pronged “AD package”: auditory narration, touch tour, and pre-show notes. In addition, the study evaluates aspects of accessibility beyond AD and identifies ways in which environmental factors may present barriers or alternatively facilitate participation in theater events for the B/VI population.

The following research questions are addressed: First, does AD enhance the overall quality of the theater experience for B/VI participants? We hypothesized that the enjoyment as well as the quality of the experience (spatial presence, narrative perception, and engagement) will be greater when attending AD performances. Second, to what degree are AD users satisfied with the service provided by each of the AD components: audio device, narration characteristics, pre-show notes, and touch tour? Third, irrespective of AD, are there environmental factors that enhance or impede participation in the theater for B/VI individuals?

Methodology

This section describes the participants involved in the study, the research tools, and the procedure followed. Ethical approval for this study was received, June 2016, from the internal ethics committee of The National Insurance Institute of Israel, approval #14,073.

Participants

In total, 83 legally B/VI individuals, 58% women, age 54 (±14), participated in the study. Table 1 presents the participants’ characteristics. In all, 81 participants attended both AD and non-AD plays; 2 viewed only an AD play and answered only the satisfaction questionnaire. Participants were recruited by Israel’s Central Library for the Blind via social media, friend-brings-a-friend, and direct referrals. Part of the recruitment process included turning to various organization for the B/VI population, primarily through Internet channels. Participants provided written informed consent.

Table 1.

Participants’ characteristics, demographic, socio-demographic, and B/VI (N = 83).

Variable	N (%)
Women	48 (58)
Age, M (SD)	54 (14)
Age above 60	33 (40)
Married/significant relationship	41 (49)
Education
Elementary	8 (10)
High school	21 (25)
Some college	12 (14)
Academic degree	42 (51)
Working (public settings)	47 (57)
Economic status
Good	30 (36)
Fair	46 (55)
Poor	7 (9)
Visual ability
Totally blind	27 (33)
Large objects	27 (33)
Shades and light	20 (24)
Tunnel vision	4 (5)
Other	5 (6)
Age of disability onset
0-2 years old	41 (49)
3–10 years old	5 (6)
11 years old and older	37 (45)

M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

Research measures

A prospective research design was implemented, applying the following quantitative tools:

Questionnaire 1: quality of the experience and enjoyment

This questionnaire was developed based in part on the ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) and uses a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree) (Lessiter et al., 2001). The ITC-SOPI was previously implemented in research that examined virtual experience among individuals with impairments. Subsequently, the ITC-SOPI was applied to evaluate the effect of AD during a movie (Fryer & Freeman, 2012). The following major items from the ITC-SOPI that relate to the experience of AD at a live theater production were included

Spatial presence: The degree of perception of physical space and realism (e.g., “I had a sense of actually being in the scenes displayed”), (3 items);

Narrative perception: The degree of understanding of the theme of the performance, including the ability to follow the narrative and identify characters (e.g., “I was able to imagine the characters”), (3 items);

Engagement: The degree of involvement and interest in the content (e.g., “I was very focused on the play and did not think about anything else”), (3 items);

Enjoyment: The degree of overall enjoyment (e.g., “I enjoyed the performance”), (3 items).

Cronbach’s alpha internal consistencies were conducted for each domain of the questionnaire: spatial presence α = .81, narrative perception α = .79, engagement α = .80, and enjoyment α = .92. All questionnaire items had a positive contribution to the alpha.

Questionnaire 2: satisfaction with the auditory narration

This questionnaire includes nine items related to specific auditory narration characteristics concerning expression, intonation, speed of speech, and the narration’s contribution to understanding the play (Table 3). The questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = very poor to 5 = very good. Examples of items: “How well was AD integrated into the content of the play?” and “Was the tempo of the speech appropriate?”

Questionnaire 3: satisfaction from the additional AD components

This questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = very poor to 5 = very good, and consists of three sections:

Satisfaction from the AD device (4 items);

Satisfaction from the pre-show notes (4 items);

Satisfaction from the “touch tour” (5 items).

Questionnaire 4: considerations for theater participation

This questionnaire asks about general habits regarding theater attendance and about considerations for attending theater productions (Table 5); it uses a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = not important to 5 = very important. Examples of items: “To what degree does the cost of the theater ticket affect participation?” and “To what degree does the availability of a companion affect attendance?”

Questionnaire 1 (quality of the experience and enjoyment) was handed out at the end of each play. The satisfaction questionnaires (2 and 3) were filled out only after AD performances. The tool assessing overall considerations for participation (Questionnaire 4) was implemented several months after attending the AD performance. The questions and measures were read aloud to the participants, who responded verbally. Each questionnaire included an additional section for general, less structured comments.

Procedure

Five audio-described plays were available in nine adapted theaters. Each play was performed without AD as well. The productions were announced in various networks for B/VI individuals. The research design aimed to neutralize differences between artistic level and quality of the play across the various theaters and to focus upon the impact of the AD service itself. Toward this end, each participant attended two different plays: one with AD and one without. Half of the participants saw the AD play first and half saw the non-AD play first. This paradigm enabled a comparison of the same play in the two different states, as well as a comparison by each participant regarding participation in AD and non-AD plays.

The protocol began with a systematic distribution of the AD device, personal instruction, and verification that the device was working properly. In all, 98% of the participants then attended the touch tour. They met with the stage manager, actors, and auditory describer prior to the beginning of the play. The characters in the play were described, a connection was established between the characters and the actors’ voices, and tactile familiarity was made with the stage set-up, including the props and the scenery. Next, 82% of the participants listened with their headset to the recorded pre-show notes while seated in the theater. An Internet link to the pre-show notes was available and 21% listened to the notes in advance. During the performance of each play, an audio describer provided objective-style narration.

Data analysis

For all ratio variables, means and standard deviations were calculated and t-test pairs were carried out to compare the quality of the experience and enjoyment between plays with AD and without. Absolute frequencies and percentages were calculated for all nominal variables. Good (4) and very good (5) responses were combined and are presented as a single variable: high satisfaction.

Factor analysis was conducted for the quality of the experience-and-satisfaction questionnaires and supported a pattern of four fields: spatial presence, narrative perception, engagement, and enjoyment. Alpha for accepting research assumptions α = .05 (one sided). Statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS statistical software (Version 20).

Results

Comparison of the quality of the experience between plays with AD versus without revealed a significantly enhanced experience when the play was audio described. As demonstrated in Table 2, the effect size was high for spatial presence and narrative perception, and moderate for engagement. Participants agreed with the enjoyment statements regarding both AD and non-AD plays, with no significant difference noted.

Table 2.

Quality of experience and enjoyment: plays with AD vs. without (N = 81).

Domain	AD*	No AD*	Effect size d’	p-value
Spatial presence	4.3 (0.6)	3.6 (0.8)	1.08	<.001
Narrative perception	4.3 (0.8)	3.7 (1.0)	0.77	<.001
Engagement	4.3 (0.8)	3.9 (0.9)	0.42	<.01
Overall quality of experience	4.3 (0.6)	3.7 (0.7)	0.85	<.001
Enjoyment	4.2 (0.9)	4.1 (0.9)	0.14	n.s.

Note. Effect size Cohen’s d.’

Scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Regarding the satisfaction from the various AD services, 87% of the participants reported high satisfaction (good/4 – very-good/5) from the AD narration characteristics (Table 3). In addition, high overall satisfaction (good/4 – very-good/5) was reported concerning the AD components: AD device (67%), pre-show notes (85%), and touch tour (77%), (Table 4).

Table 3.

Satisfaction from the AD narration.

Characteristics	M* (SD)	Good and very good, %
Clear expression of words	4.7 (0.6)	93
Intonation and pitch	4.4 (0.8)	86
Pace and speed	4.4 (0.8)	84
Quantity of text	4.2 (0.9)	80
Integration into the content of the play	4.1 (1.0)	72
Contribution to understanding	4.5 (0.7)	90
Contribution to the experience	4.5 (0.7)	94
Overall satisfaction from the AD	4.3 (0.8)	87

AD: audio description.

Scale range: 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good).

Table 4.

Satisfaction from the AD components.

Component	M* (SD)	% Good/very good (4/5)
Auditory device
Instruction and explanation	4.6 (0.6)	91
Operating the hearing device	4.4 (0.9)	85
Hearing device worked properly	4.0 (1.1)	70
Overall satisfaction	4.0 (1.1)	67
Pre-show notes
Understanding of the roles	4.3 (0.8)	85
Understanding of activity on the stage	4.3 (0.9)	82
Enabled anticipation of events in the plot	4.1 (0.9)	76
Overall satisfaction	4.4 (0.8)	85
Touch tour
Recognizing actors’ voices	3.9 (1.3)	67
Knowing and understanding the characters	3.8 (1.1)	62
Understanding the stage setting	3.9 (1.3)	66
Enabled anticipation of events in the plot	3.8 (1.2)	60
Overall satisfaction	4.2 (1.1)	77

Scale range: 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good).

Analysis of considerations of theater attendance (Table 5) revealed that the quality of the play is an important incentive. Issues related to the logistics of getting to the theater (availability of an escort, appropriate transportation, and theater location) were highlighted as moderately important/3 – important/4.

Table 5.

Considerations for theater attendance.

Considerations	M* (SD)
Quality of the play	4.2 (1.0)
Availability of an escort	4.0 (1.3)
Quality of the acting	3.7 (1.3)
Available transportation	3.6 (1.5)
Difficulty comprehending content	3.6 (1.5)
Distance of theater from residence	3.3 (1.3)
Accessibility of the theater	3.1 (1.5)
Accessibility of box office	3.0 (1.5)
Overall expense of theater outing	3.0 (1.4)
Price of theater ticket	3.1 (1.3)
Scheduling of the performance	2.3 (1.3)

Scale range: 1 (not important) to 5 (very important).

Discussion

This study explores the effects of AD during its initial implementation in theaters in Israel. The results provide insight into the satisfaction from AD, the quality of the experience, and overall considerations for theater participation among B/VI individuals. We have incorporated into the Discussion comments of participants collected alongside the quantitative data to strengthen the results and to open avenues for further research.

The results highlight the overall enjoyment of participants attending theater productions, with AD and without. This starting point emphasizes the relevance of theater accessibility and how cultural events can and should address the needs of B/VI individuals, enabling maximum participation and enhancing quality of life.

Beyond enjoyment, participants indicated satisfaction from the three-pronged “AD package” and reported an enhanced overall quality of their theater experience when AD was provided. These results are particularly noteworthy when considering that for the B/VI-person, AD is a complex, multi-dimensional cognitive process. Auditory narration aims to enable the listener to create a mental model and an enriched understanding of the event. Information about space and object placement is provided in an auditory form, enabling individuals to perceive the experience by relying upon auditory input that is relevant to them. Yet this process is challenging. It requires attending to content provided by different sources, ongoing integration of the auditory input, and incorporation of the information with previous knowledge, experience, and expectations of the participant (Braun, 2007). Our results highlight the ability of B/VI individuals to successfully integrate the various layers of auditory information, thereby gaining an enhanced experience.

Similarly, integration of the information from the touch tour and the pre-show notes requires complex cognitive processes. Both modalities provide additional sensory information prior to the performance. The expectation is that the audience will be able to use this information during the performance, conjuring up a visual image and/or gaining a better understanding of space and objects relevant to the production. These perceptual skills of mental mapping and spatial representation are acquired by sighted individuals largely through visual input and processing. However, B/VI individuals perceive the experience based upon the sensory input that is relevant to them. The touch tour provides B/VI individuals with the haptic information that they often rely upon when navigating their physical environments (e.g., walking-cane, Braille writing-template) (Hill et al., 1993; Lahav & Mioduser, 2002). The results of this study support the benefit of the touch tour and the pre-show notes. Together with the auditory narration, they present a three-pronged AD approach and contribute to an overall perceptual understanding of the performance space and environment as well as enhance the quality of the theater experience.

The data also show that the ability to attend and enjoy a theater performance goes beyond AD and touches upon critical accessibility factors that can deter or facilitate participation. Data presented in Table 5 highlight prerequisite accessibility issues (transportation, escort availability, and theater location) that need to be set in place to enable theater participation for the B/VI. These are basic environmental factors to consider if the theater is to be a viable cultural setting for B/VI participants.

Accessibility includes three general principles: inclusion, continuity, and flexibility and availability (The Israel Ministry of Justice, n.d.). These principles are meaningful in understanding the implications of our findings, as follows:

Inclusion: People with disabilities are part of society and as such should be able to participate in all services and settings just as any other person. The idea of AD service is to provide an accessibility tool to enable the B/VI individual to participate in cultural events based on his or her interests. Currently, this choice is limited, as not all cultural events are audio described. Laws establishing AD as a standard service at cultural events alongside heightening communal awareness are imperative to make this service part of everyday practice for the B/VI:

Once again, I am amazed at how easily the appropriate access makes me forget all about my disability . . . Wearing the headphones, with the narrator whispering to me what is taking place on stage, I laugh, I cry, I identify, and above all I enjoy this wonderful service. It is just a shame that I can’t keep the headphones on permanently and listen to the audio description of life. (I.R.)

It really completes the “missing picture.” Previously, I would only go to a play if my wife went with me because she knows exactly what I am missing, what I need to understand . . . And this is what the professional AD does – even if he/she does not know me. When you have the AD, it requires less effort to understand, and I really can enjoy the show or film. This is a very significant point. (D.N.)

Continuity: For an activity or service to be truly inclusive, it is important to identify (and if possible, eliminate) barriers to engagement. Thus, while participants in this study were, overall, very satisfied with the AD service, they stated that theater attendance for them depended on other important factors, such as transportation, a way without obstacles to the theater space, and an accessible theater entrance and box office. B/VI individuals may find a service such as AD to be very helpful, but if their needs are not attended to at each step along the way, they will not participate:

Another factor that influences whether to go to a play is the level of accessibility of the hall and the specific seating I get. I use a guide dog and if there isn’t enough space between the rows, so the dog can lie down comfortably, I cannot attend. Also, sometimes these seats increase the cost of the ticket – so again, I cannot attend. (G.N.)

Flexibility and availability: Due to the variant needs of people with disabilities, adaptations and accessibility provisions should be made readily available and flexible to suit a variety of needs of theater patrons. The touch tour and the pre-show notes are examples of such flexibility; yet these components are not standard adaptations in all AD settings. Furthermore, as Table 4 indicates, there is room for improvement regarding these services. Participants commented that the size and clutter on the stage often made the touch tour logistically difficult, and they suggested passing the props to them while they are seated in the first row of the theater, thus eliminating the need for them to go up onto the stage. A recommendation was made to substitute recordings of the actors’ voices into the pre-show notes – thereby dispensing with that part of the touch tour and making it more efficient. It was also suggested that the notes be available when attending non-AD plays, providing at least a partial service when auditory narration is not offered.

Another example of the challenge of flexibility relates to the AD device. Unlike the variety of auditory devices for people with hearing loss, currently there is only one type of AD device and headphone. Participants expressed hope for a smartphone application that would be more reliable and time-efficient, and they commented that

It is important to have a choice when to listen and the device should be easily operated. Some people need better soundproof or noise-filtering headphones to be able to hear both the audio narrator and the stage performance. (D.N.)

I would recommend a device that can enable a rewind to hear again if we missed anything, or to slow the speech. . . . Some people miss things due to challenging noises from the stage. (T.L.)

These examples of flexibility and availability regarding the AD components arose from the participants themselves and can be implemented to improve the already existing service. The AD service-providers need to work toward improving the technology in order to better meet the needs of the B/VI participants.

Limitations

The results presented here need to be viewed with the data collection method in mind. For instance, although all participants were recruited specifically for the performances included in the research, many of the participants are regular theater patrons, including 65% with some level of college education and 91% with fair to good economic standing. Therefore, factors that should be considered in future research are as follows: sampling a more diverse socioeconomic group, participants’ degree of overall involvement in cultural events, and comfort with the use of technology. Furthermore, to gain a broader perspective regarding the leisure and cultural needs of the B/VI population, we recommend continued research on AD in the theater as well as in other cultural settings, including the study of different AD styles and their implications for individuals with various degrees of B/VI.

Conclusion and future research

This article presents a first analysis of the quality of the experience and the satisfaction of B/VI theater patrons regarding the AD service in Israel. The results of this applied research offer an understanding of the AD process based upon consumer insights and implications. The outcomes serve as guidelines to continue molding and modifying the service to meet the needs of the B/VI population.

Currently in the State of Israel, to a large extent due to the impact of the research presented here, AD has become a profession recognized by the Ministry of Social Affairs. The State now provides AD services for the B/VI population at movies, plays, museums, various cultural events, public parades, national ceremonies, and recently at the Eurovision song contest held in 2019 in Israel. We recommend follow-up research in Israel as AD services become less novel and more widely available.

Key findings

AD enhances satisfaction and quality of the theater experience for B/VI individuals, especially when accompanied by additional sensory supplements.

AD needs to be provided alongside comprehensive accessibility adaptations to increase opportunity for participation in cultural events.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: National Insurance Institute of Israel.

ORCID iD

Naomi Ferziger

References

The American Council of the Blind. (n.d.). http://www.acb.org/adp/index.html

Benecke

(2004). Audio-description. Meta, 49(1), 78–80.

Berger

McAteer

Schreier

Kaldenberg

(2013). Occupational therapy interventions to improve leisure and social participation for older adults with low vision: A systematic review. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 67(3), 303–311. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2013.005447

Braun

(2007). Audio description from a discourse perspective: A socially relevant framework for research and training. https://lans-tts.uantwerpen.be/index.php/LANS-TTS/article/view/197/0

Braun

(2008). Audio description research: State of the art and beyond. Translation Studies in the New Millennium, 6, 14–30.

Brouwer

D. M.

Sadlo

Winding

Hanneman

M. G.

(2008). Limitations in mobility: Experiences of visually impaired older people. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 71(10), 414–421.

Chang

P. J.

Wray

Lin

(2014). Social relationships, leisure activity, and health in older adults. Health Psychology, 33, 516–523.

Chmiel

Mazur

(2012). AD reception research: Some methodological considerations. In Perego

(Ed.), Emerging topics in translation: Audio description (pp. 57–80). EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste.

Corral

Lladó

(2011). Opera multimodal translation: Audio describing Karol Szymanowski’s Król Roger for the Liceu Theatre, Barcelona. The Journal of Specialized Translation, 15, 163–179.

10.

Doble

S. E.

Santha

J. C.

(2008). Occupational well-being: Rethinking occupational therapy outcomes. Canadian Journal Occupational Therapy, 75(3), 184–190.

11.

Eardley-Weaver

(2013). Opening eyes to opera: The process of translation for blind and partially-sighted audiences. Translation and Interpreting Studies: The Journal of the American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association, 8(2), 272–292.

12.

Fryer

(2016). An introduction to audio description: A practical guide. Routledge.

13.

Fryer

Freeman

(2012). Presence in those with and without sight: Audio description and its potential for virtual reality applications. Journal of Cyber Therapy & Rehabilitation, 5, 15–22.

14.

Hill

Rieser

Hill

Halpin

(1993). How persons with visual impairments explore noval spaces: Strategies of good and poor performers. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 87, 295–301.

15.

Hutchinson

R. S.

Eardley

A. F.

(2018). Museum audio description: The problem of textual fidelity. Perspectives, 27, 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2018.1473451

16.

The Israel Ministry of Justice. (n.d.). Commission for equal rights of persons with disabilities. Principles of accessibility (In Hebrew). http://www.justice.gov.il/Units/NetzivutShivyon/MercazHameidaLenegishut/MahiNegishut/Pages/EkronotHanegishut.aspx

17.

The Israel Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs and Social Services. (2014). http://www.molsa.gov.il/Populations/Disabilities/Blindness/VisionAndBlindness/StatisticalData/Pages/StatisticalData.aspx

18.

Lahav

Mioduser

(2002, September 18–20). Multisensory virtual environment for supporting blind persons’ acquisition of spatial cognitive mapping, orientation, and mobility skills [Conference session]. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies, Veszprém, Hungary.

19.

Lessiter

Freeman

Keogh

Davidoff

J. D.

(2001). A cross-media presence questionnaire: The ITC Sense of Presence Inventory. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 10(3), 282–297.

20.

Lombard

Ditton

(1997). At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 3(2), 1–39.

21.

Office of Communications [Ofcom]. (2017). Code on television access services. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv-radio-and-on-demand/broadcast-codes/tv-access-services

22.

Pettitt

Sharpe

Steven

(1996). AUDETEL: Enhancing television for visually impaired people. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 14(2), 48–52.

23.

Ramos Caro

Rojo López

. (2014). “Feeling” audio description: Exploring the impact of AD on emotional response. Translation Spaces, 3, 133–150.

24.

Romero-Fresco

Fryer

(2013). Could audio described films benefit from audio introductions? A reception study with AD users. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 107(4), 287–295.

25.

Schmeidler

Kirchner

(2001). Adding audio description: Does it make a difference? Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 95(4), 197–212.

26.

Snyder

(2005). Audio description: The visual made verbal across arts disciplines – Across the globe. Translating Today, 4, 15–17.

27.

The United Nation. (2006). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html

28.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2011). Vision. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/vision

29.

Walczak

Fryer

(2017). Creative description: The impact of audio description style on presence in visually impaired audiences. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 35, 6–17.

30.

Walczak

Rubaj

(2014). Audio description in history, biology and physics classes for visually impaired learners. Przekładaniec, 28, 63–79.

31.

World Health Organization. (2001). International classification of functioning, disability and health: ICF. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42407

32.

World Health Organization. (2018). Blindness and visual impairment fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blindness-and-visual-impairment