Digital Religion,Modern Society and the Construction of Digital Theology

Introduction

In recent decades, digitalisation has become an important issue and even a new form of contemporary culture that is changing how people live. Online shopping sites have replaced traditional and modern markets. Face-to-face meetings have shifted to digital platforms so people do not have to face each other to meet physically. The internet is increasingly popular in overcoming the constraints of distance, space, and time. People's consumptive patterns are shifting with the utilisation of various online shopping platforms. The economy is changing as buying and selling transactions have been replaced by a cashless system through digital money and the utilisation of various smartphone-based applications. Academics are engaging with more books in PDF and other digital formats that do not require lengthy and large shelves like traditional libraries. Humans are already in the Internet of Things era, where data determines everything and moves from one place to another for various purposes. Digitalisation has become a representation of human life in all aspects, including shaping the experience of religiosity and efforts to build spirituality.

Physical presence in a church building is no longer the only option for worship. Digitalisation shifts all traditional forms of service and mechanisms. It offers new concepts such as online worship, digital church, online face-to-face, rites and rituals in cyberspace, digital discipleship, and everything related to Christianity. ¹ A pastor can now conduct internet-based pastoral visits without leaving the pastorate to pray for his congregation. The face of contemporary Christianity has undergone a significant change. Campbell says that Christians have arrived at a new territory where offline and online religious practices have become intertwined, and the two no longer have clear boundaries. ² This is due to the role of digital media in facilitating spiritual practice and contemporary religious life. Chow emphasises the same point. If digitalisation has created a new culture, it has transformed Christian movements and networks from a physically-based geographical space to a digital space. Christian messages have been translated into new media, thus changing the way people experience, understand, and practice their faith. ³ This is the basis of a construct of what is now understood as digital religion.

This article aims to explain the construction of digital religion as a new way of religion in contemporary society due to recent cultural changes. My argument is that the Industrial Revolution 4.0 and the formation of society 5.0 have an impact on the emergence of a new culture both in life in general and spirituality in particular. To achieve this goal, I will first analytically explain the process of social change in society concerning religion through the perspective of the sociology of religion. Then, I will present an epistemological conceptualisation of digital religion with media, technology and religious practice. The last part is a proposal that challenges further thinking among theologians, church practitioners, academics and laity regarding the theological construction of digital religion as a cyber-theology.

Digital religion and society

The presence of digital religion is a manifestation of the changes that have occurred in modern society. Changes in the industrial world (Industrial Revolution 4.0) align with the formation of society 5.0, which is synonymous with digital technology. A typical society like this has real-life intertwining with the Internet of Things, computerisation, networks, and various digital platforms. Schwab explained that the Industrial Revolution 4.0 is marked by three main characteristics: the presence of the latest technology, the digitalisation of the industrial sector, and the transformation of human life. Humans are entering a revolutionary period t, changing society's way of life, work, activities and interconnections. ⁴ These changes are historic in size, speed, and scope and can even be said to be leaps and bounds compared to previous eras of society. One of the most obvious is the presence of two spheres: the real and virtual worlds. Humans go back and forth between the two spheres, and the boundaries between the two are increasingly blurred. As a result, a new ecosystem is formed that represents a hybrid civilisation. ⁵ This is because the ecosystem intersects cyberspace and physical space and functions as a new layer accommodating community activities.

The sociology of religion perspective explains that changes in the order of society and social facts due to digitalisation will affect individual behaviour. And vice versa. This aligns with Durkheim's thought that religion is a social symbolic force. In looking at the relationship between religion and society, Durkheim explained that as a symbol system, religion is evidence of people's awareness of sacred things and distinguishes it from aspects of social reality or things that are categorised as mundane. ⁶ New social facts formed due to the Industrial Revolution and societal changes affect how society actualises itself in civilisation, including in religion and building its spirituality. If this understanding is used as a benchmark, then digital religion is one of the ways humans maintain their religiosity in a new technology-mediated culture. Digital religion is a symbol system built to respond to change. The difference with the old symbol system is seen through the role of media in facilitating religion.

Digital mass media and the latest cutting-edge forms of communication play an increasingly important role in building and maintaining social relationships. New technologies in communication have occupied the forefront of modern society's social relationships and are emerging in ways not seen before. ⁷ His influence on religious life is significant. In his book The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim explains that religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred things and distinguishing them from the profane, where they unite adherents in a moral community called the church. However, despite being a unified product, religion is not a single autonomous institution. Instead, it is highly varied and recognises pluralism in the sacred. As a result, religion forms different religious groups, each surrounded by beliefs, rites, and worship procedures. Doctrine becomes the distinguishing factor of the belief system that underlies various collective actions. That is why, for Durkheim, religion should not be understood as a mere belief system but rather as a collective action in society based on each belief system. ⁸

Considering Durkheim's thesis, it can be analysed that digital religion is a collective action in modern society that adapts its belief system in context. ⁹ While such adaptation is initially a natural phenomenon, the involvement of digital technology in distinguishing and expressing between the profane and the sacred is something entirely new. Tsuria supports this. According to him, digital media can be a tool to separate the sacred from the profane, depending on how modern society positions the media to shape its religious feelings. ¹⁰ However, Tsuria warns us to be careful. Religion as a way of responding to God and the supernatural can be reduced when people become more dependent and religious by following the logic of the media. Technology can become a pillar of rationality that can undermine religion's supernatural and sacred elements. ¹¹ Technology can lead people to displace divine things that have no logical aspect. That is why caution is needed, as it can lead people to prioritise performance over the formation of religious experiences. Transcendence with God and forming a spiritual atmosphere can be sacrificed in favour of performance. At the same time, performance in religion is only an expression of religious experience.

Regarding Durkheim's pre-conditions, religion must first be returned to its social context, and second, it must be explained without reference to previous religious systems. Therefore, a digital religion, like traditional religions, cannot be separated from its social context. Comparing it with previous religious systems will only lead to ontological misunderstandings. Argyle asserts that religious behaviour cannot be separated from a society's current situation and conditions. ¹² This causes a review of religion and how people practice religion, which is always dynamic and actual. Thus, religion does not appear as a random event in the chronology of belief systems. Instead, the aspects that cause it can be predicted, studied, and effect revealed by reading the response and behaviour of the community. As such, religion (including digital religion) results from cultural change and societal dynamics.

Geertz's theory of the relationship between religion and culture shows the process of forming patterns of meaning (a pattern of meaning). ¹³ These patterns illustrate the presence of various symbols that contain ideas, meanings, and ideas of people's consciousness about the life they live in the flow of time. Therefore, in Geertz's thinking, religion is part of and is a cultural system. Geertz defines religion as ‘a system of symbols that aims to create strong feelings and motivations, which can easily spread and not easily disappear in a person, by forming a conception of a general order of existence, and attaching this conception to factual emanations, so that in the end these feelings and motivations will appear as a unique reality’. ¹⁴ Here, it can be seen that digital religion is a product of the increasingly sublimated culture of modern society. When contemporary society develops in technological change, the entire cultural system in that society is reconstructed so that it becomes actual.

Based on data released by the We Are Social website, according to the United Nations, the earth's total population in January 22023 was 8.1 billion. Of these, 5.44 billion people use various forms of cell phones, and internet users account for 5.16 billion people of the world's population. Global internet penetration (internet users from tablets and computers) reaches up to 65.6%. This data is supported by social media users of 4.76 billion people, or equivalent to 59.4% of the total world population. These figures show that the digital growth trend continues to rise even after the world pandemic is declared over. ¹⁵ The report describes the situation of a world society that is increasingly homogenised towards the internet and digital technology devices. From a religious perspective, there are two complementary sides. One side describes the phenomenon of using media for religious purposes, but simultaneously, it comes as an attempt to explain the relationship between media and religion in society. The first side wants to reveal that today, in the contemporary world, traditional religion has a face that is no longer traditional. Religion has been mediated by digital technology through the internet so that it appears with a new face. The second side explains the mutual influence between religion and the empirical reality of modern society. Both sides prove how religion and culture have intertwined and influenced each other. The latest dimensions of culture have shaped the way people practice religion. Conversely, the religious way of the people also colours the society's culture. That dimension is the media and all the technological devices that come with it.

Referring to the perspective of the sociology of religion, religion should not be seen as an exclusive autonomous institution in society. Individuals and communities must see it as actions, symbols and behaviours to build culture together. Religion, in the perspective of the sociology of religion, puts aside the overemphasis on theological elements but takes great interest in society as a place for interaction among religious believers for the formation of social systems. It is within this framework that digital religion should exist. Whether its presence is considered Marx's opium, Weber's spirit of capitalism, or Durkheim's profane-sacred dialectic, digital religion can be seen as a new form of culture in contemporary society in expressing their spiritual beliefs. They engage technology for the sake of that religiosity.

As such, digital religion is not a religion. Digital religion is a traditional religion that is mediated by technological devices, so the way of religion changes according to the form of media as the organising framework. ¹⁶ By not subjecting it, a digital religion will remain within the demarcation boundaries of technological mediation. Cowan asserts that as religion emerges and develops online, one of the most critical functions of the sociology of religion on the internet is challenging often hyperbolic and unsubstantiated claims. ¹⁷ Building the construction of digital religion sociologically as a religion (or subject) will only legitimise what Marx once expressed, that religion is the groan of oppressed beings and an expression of real suffering. It will only trap people into false happiness because digital religion is a copy of authentic reality. Due to disillusionment with explicit institutions, people who were originally offline may ‘escape’ into the online system and make it an addictive painkiller through a reality built on imagination. ¹⁸ That is why the main foundation of the sociology of religion's approach to digital religion is the extent to which people have religious experiences through virtual reality. Without this, spiritual life will only be ridden by the media and, at the same time, controlled by the media, not for religious interests but for the interests of media capital itself.

Digital religion constructs

The term digital religion does not appear suddenly. Referring to a communication study conducted by Heidi Campbell et al. in their book entitled Digital Religion – Understanding Religious Practice in New Media Worlds revealed that the world is experiencing a wave of the rise of internet technology in religious practice and has arrived at the fourth stage. The first wave emerged when conventional religious institutions engaged the internet to extend the reach of traditional offline-based spiritual practices. Campbell said internet technology was initially only used to facilitate topical religious discussions through mailing lists and network discussion groups. At this stage, the internet plays a role in forming online religious communities.

Then came the second wave when religion and digitalisation arrived at the level of conceptualisation. Here, the internet is not seen as a facilitator or space for religious discussion but as a means of religious literacy, preaching, and religious rituals and worship. ¹⁹ This wave triggered creativity in the emergence of digital spiritual practices functionally and existentially. Chama says that the web and the internet have become a vast place where ideas about God resonate, faith is formed, and collective spirit in terms of spirituality is raised en masse. The second stage is the categorisation stage, where various concrete typologies begin to be attached to religion with digitalisation. This categorisation aims to identify different trends in online religious practices.

The third wave is the phase of interconnection between offline and online religious practices and is explained in terms of various theories and ways of working. The theoretical conceptualisations that emerged in this third wave aimed to build a network analysis of offline religious communities about the involvement of technology in traditional spiritual practices. However, the third stage is only transitional. Campbell says the third stage was short-lived, and humanity has arrived at the fourth wave. In the fourth stage, the implementation of digital technology is done very exploratively to sustain, carry out, and support religious practice in total. The fourth wave leads to religious actors negotiating between offline and online life, how the two are intertwined, complementary and intertwined. Contemporary society has widely introduced new concepts regarding how media facilitate macro and micro religion, including defining the profane and the sacred. Referring to the fourth wave, it can be concluded that digital religion is a sublimation that occurs in religious practice after communication technology, digital media and the internet work together to sustain the spiritual practices of modern society. The era of digital religion began when traditional religious elements were transformed into digital forms.

Some of the characteristics of this transformation can be identified through the following. First, the internet has been fully utilised for religious information. In its report on Pastor's and the Internet, the Barna Group presents data on a significant increase in Internet use for religious purposes and the search for spiritual information. The survey also found that besides pragmatic uses, pastors use the internet to prepare sermons and preach, conduct ministry, and build pastoral relationships, including interaction through conversation, discussion and prayer, and counselling. The survey results confirm that the internet has become, and will continue to be, a vital tool for connection building, networking, outreach, and spiritual formation, regardless of the church's shape, size, location or demographic. ²⁰ Barna's descriptive report is clarified by Helland's research, which reports that the changing trends in the world have paralleled the changing trends in religiosity. All products of the World Wide Web function as places of presence, tools of control, and mediation for religious interests. Helland argues that the advancement of the internet has triggered social change because individuals, whether they belong to an official popular religion or not, have made the digital world a new environment in which they express their religious expressions freely. ²¹ Based on Barna's data and Helland's findings, it can be concluded that the internet has become the new spiritual environment of modern society.

Digital religion cannot be seen etymologically by simply combining the words ‘digital’ and ‘religion.’ Digital religion is a product of contemporary culture characterised by digital technology. In this case, the cooperation between society and digital technology has made religion a place for its actualisation. Grant and Stout explain that digital religion cannot be separated from the contextual situation of society and vice versa. Both agree that religion and society influence each other in formulating religious practices. On the one hand, the contextual situation of society changes the way of religion and its practice. Integrating digital technology into spiritual practice creates a broader horizon regarding the nature of religiosity in society, as summarised by digital religion. Both also see that the integration is dynamic and shows continuous change. This is because digital technologies are not static but are evolving into new forms and will become increasingly involved in religious institutions and practices. ²² Based on this, the theoretical construction of digital religion cannot be defined in an etymological approach. Still, it must be placed as a whole concept that explains sociologically how modern society responds to these changes in cultural and religious layers at once.

Campbell explains that digital religion not only refers to religion displayed and articulated online but is a new cultural form of society regarding spirituality. ²³ Campbell recognises that the conception of digital religion was initially only used to describe religion's presence at cyberspace borders. However, it has since expanded to include new types of religious communities and rituals that highlight the alliance of technology to spiritual life through religion. Campbell seems to agree with Bauwens that an active spiritual life continues in cyberspace. ²⁴ Nonetheless, Campbell recognises that the term has been widely applied to various contexts according to their respective scholarly approaches. Dawson, for example, uses the term to identify religious organisations or groups in cyberspace. ²⁵ However, according to Hojsgaard, digital religion is not merely about the digital mediation of religion. More than mediation, digital religion is an extension of the analogue way of religion because its ability to exist has exceeded the physical limitations of the real world. Even though cyberspace can imitate physical space, religion in cyberspace remains a prototype of the imitation of physical reality. As Helland explains, digital religion is not just about having or practicing ‘religion’ in a digital format and performance but speaks of the presence of a new religious space in which there is a mixture of all traditional components into the unique culture of modern society. ²⁶

To overcome the diversity of definitions, a middle point is built by Campbell and, at the same time, functions as an inter and intra-disciplinary concept. To quote Campbell's definitive explanation, digital religion is a technological and cultural space that emerges when the online and offline religious spheres blend and integrate. In this definition, Campbell describes digital religion as a bridge that connects and extends online spiritual practices and spaces into offline religious contexts and vice versa. It incorporates features of online culture (such as interactivity, convergence, and audience-generated content) and traditional religion (such as patterns of belief and ritual associated with historical grounding and community). For Campbell, when the conventional, lived religious practice meets digital culture, a ‘third space’ is created. This third space is characterised by online religion and online religion.

According to Siuda, online religion is a simple form of digitisation of religion. Here, religion is informative, normative, and descriptive but lacks participation. The next step is online religion, which is more complex and integrated with some technological platforms through interactive presence. Religion in this category operates in cyberspace as a substitute for church buildings, which use digital platforms to communicate and build interactions, and digital networks as a substitute for physical face-to-face. In this case, there is a shift in religious practice from traditional rigid forms to new creative-innovative forms. The space to realise this is very widely available on the internet. The form of participation is evident. Online religion only presents religion in online form as something informative and unidirectional. The form of involvement is passive. At the same time, online religion involves various participatory and interactive forms between its users. ²⁷

From the various definitions and perspectives above, it can be concluded that digital religion has two approaches. First, digital religion explains digital technology's role in facilitating religious practices and beliefs. In this view, digital religion is understood as the mediatisation of technology on religion and its practices. The second view, digital religion, is a bit more complex because religion is not only understood as mediatised but is hybridised and becomes an inclusive part of the cultural context. Its conceptual construction does not stand alone theologically but is integrated into society's anthropological and sociological dimensions. The two definitions above suggest that the internet is not only a facilitator or instrument in digital religion but an essential part of facilitating and shaping religious discourse and experience.

Towards digital theology

Digital religion has an extensive theological space from the perspective of theological science. First of all, this can be seen from the definition given by Drewes and Mojau. Both formulate theological science as a scientific field of study that serves the church in its efforts to understand and live God's work based on God's living word. ²⁸ This means that theology critically reviews the practice and mission of the church in the light of the truth of God's word. Based on this understanding, digital religion is both a subject and an object that is part of the study of the church's mission. As explained in the previous section, digital religion is a contemporary segmentation in the technology-mediated way of religion. Therefore, three functions are seen in human efforts to build their spirituality. First, digital religion becomes a channel of religious information with various digital spiritual content freely accessible to anyone who needs it. This first function is more passive but accessible. The second is interactive because it is reciprocal. This is due to the role of digital religion as a venue for the exchange of spiritual and religious information that reaches out and involves all actors in the network. Third, digital religion has become a contemporary platform for discourse about God. Theological forums, discussions, and communities are formed in this stage, making digital religion an inclusive part of the theological design. Avis supports this opinion because it relies on understanding theology as a discourse for thinking or discussing God. ²⁹ Avis further explained that when the fellowship of believers worships in a liturgy, talks about God, sings and praises God, and expresses symbolic things about God, they are theologising. ³⁰ Although media facilitate the conversation through the internet, the conception of theology does not refer to the means but the subject matter. Through this explanation, digital religion is seen as part of a distinctive theological construction, which is different from the design of conventional theology. As a new contemporary house of religion and spirituality, this distinctiveness is represented through the digital essence that follows the word theology.

Anderson shows that utilising digital resources for theological purposes has become integral to the changing times. The development of contemporary theology in the digital realm has matched the same level of development in other disciplines. Therefore, theologians and believers have become instrumental in building or creating divine consciousness through digital computing and its accompanying tools. ³¹ This is what makes digital religion theological. In other words, digital theology is a theology that exists and speaks in the language of contemporary culture. Questions within its domain include, for example, how eschatology is expressed in cyberspace. Is there sin in the metaverse? Can AI be considered a creation that parallels the creation of humans in the Garden of Eden? Phillips et al. further elaborate that the direction of development of digital theology reflects the concept of a ‘new humanology’ that studies how humans’ experiences can change in the era of and as a result of technology, going beyond anthropological or sociological approaches. ³² Referring to the explanation of Phillips et al., it can be seen that the involvement of digital tools or methods in theology as a tool of exploration becomes the nature of the construction of digital theology itself.

If digital theology is only understood as an exploratory tool, then there is no need for conceptual problems or debates about it. Conversely, when digital theology is seen as a theological design that will explain the concept of God contextually, then normative matters are maintained. Therefore, digital theology must be seen as a complementary structure to the conceptual construction of conventional theology. The conclusion formulated by Phillips et al. can be used as a guide when saying that the current formulation of digital theology will continue to develop because it refers to the following five points. ³³ First, digital theology uses digital technology to enhance every aspect of the study of theology and religious belief and practice. Second, digital theology is used to analyse and criticise the use of digital technology in the study of theology and religious belief and practice. Third, digital theology is used to describe and contextualise the impact of digital culture on religious beliefs and practices in digital religion. Fourth, digital theology is needed to explain the digitalisation trend in theology, especially regarding religious beliefs and practices. Fifth, digital theology is required to link theology and other disciplines. ³⁴ These five points appear to create a descriptive corridor that serves as a roadmap for digital theology as a new discipline. Its distinctive feature lies in the correlative relationship between theology and technology in conversing about God. Its typical feature lies in the correlative relationship between theology and technology, which are integrated in discussing God or supporting new religious practices.

However, digital theology is not the result of the metamorphosis of the digitisation process of religion. The primary foundation of digital theology is the use of digital tools and platforms for studying theology, religious education and disseminating religious messages. In that case, the understanding of this term is more technical. The more fundamental aspect is seeing the impact and relevance of digital theology on religious beliefs, practices, and communities with spirituality and spiritual experience. For this reason, a more comprehensive range that does not just explain technical matters is needed.

The presence of the internet has affected the understanding of Christians, not only in terms of changes in religious practice but ultimately in terms of its impact on faith, spirituality, and religious experience within and outside the church. Spadaro explains that it is not enough to examine the media's involvement in spreading the Christian message and the Magisterium of the Church. There is another need to examine how Christian messages communicated in various digital forms play a role in human religiosity, belief systems, and the formation of religious experience. ³⁵ For this reason, George offers four approaches. ³⁶ The first part is to frame theology as a meaning of social communication in the era of technological advancement and the internet. The second talks about pastoral reflections on efforts to communicate the Gospel through the capacities of various webs on the Internet. The third is a phenomenological map of the existence of religion on the Internet. The fourth concerns efforts to capture the web as it is understood to contain spiritual capacities. These formulations are described by Phillips et a. as integrating digital technology into theology. ³⁷ Likewise, Savin-Baden's explanation that ‘the use of digital to study theology’ is a technical description of digital theology. ³⁸

It can be concluded that digital religion has created an extensive new space for discussing the mystery of divinity. This hybrid space drives cultural changes that affect our understanding of religious orthodoxy and the way we think and act as believers within the digitalisation framework.

Conclusion

The presence of digital religion is proof of the resurgence of religion from the privatisation of the public sphere and gains sociological significance in modern society. Even though it takes place digitally and is controlled by the media for various interests, religion can still carry out its social function of uniting members of society for order. Starting from the sociological approach (classical and modern), it is seen that digital religion is not only an essential part of contemporary religious life but has become a significant tool that proves that whatever form, the social function of religion remains and can influence society in new ways. The sociology of religion also views digital religion not only as a technology-mediated religion but also as a merged and inclusive part of a new culture of society, namely digital culture. In this case, all dimensions of anthropology, sociology and theology are connected and shape people's religious lives. The various explanations above reveal that religious tradition is no longer a determinant in social life. Whatever the religious tradition, when digitally mediated, each individual in the community network can create meaning and use symbols based on religion to influence society. Although this process is not always articulated at the level of official religious institutions or authorised religious leaders, digital media has become a tool for groups within society to express their religious identity and religious attitudes. This aspect is why digital religion has gained sociological significance in society. So, from a sociological perspective, digital religion is very relevant in a digital society because it is part of social structuralisation. This finding challenges further research to see whether digital religion significantly impacts faith formation and spirituality. It is also necessary to consider how various forms of conventional-normative religious practices will continue in digital culture, whether they remain in their traditional form or undergo changes.