Although legal recognition of same-sex relationships has received considerable attention in recent years, we know little about the effects of legal recognition (e.g., domestic partnership) and social recognition (e.g., a public ceremony) on same-sex couples. We conducted an Internet survey of 239 Californians in same-sex relationships, including a randomly selected subsample of individuals from the California Domestic Partnership Registry. Social recognition was associated with life satisfaction and relationship satisfaction, but was unrelated to relationship investments. Legal recognition was associated with investments, but was unrelated to life and relationship satisfaction. In addition, we found some support for the hypothesis that relationship formalization moderates links between gay-related stress (e.g., internalized homophobia) and individual and relationship outcomes.
Alderson, K.G. ( 2004). A phenomenological investigation of same-sex marriage . The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 13, 107-122.
3.
Badgett, M.L.V., Gates, G.J., & Maisel, N.C. ( 2008). Registered domestic partnerships among gay men and lesbians: The role of economic factors. Review of Economics of the Household , 6, 327-346.
4.
Balsam, K.F., & Szymanski, D.M. (2005). Relationship quality and domestic violence in women’s same-sex relationships: the role of minority stress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 258-269.
5.
Beals, K.P., Impett, E.A., & Peplau, L.A. ( 2002). Lesbians in love: Why some relationships endure and others end. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6, 53-63.
6.
Bramlett, M.D., & Mosher, W.D. ( 2002). Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and remarriage in the United States (Vital and Health Statistics, Series 23, Number 22). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics .
7.
Brown, S.L. ( 2000). The effect of union type on psychological well-being: Depression among cohabitors versus marrieds. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 241-255.
8.
Brown, S.L., & Booth, A. ( 1996). Cohabitation versus marriage: A comparison of relationship quality. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 668-678.
9.
Cherlin, A.J. ( 2004). The deinstitutionalization ofAmerican marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 848-861.
10.
Cherlin, A.J. ( 2009). The marriage go-around: The state of marriage and the family in America today. New York, NY: A. A. Knopf.
11.
Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., & Griffin, S. ( 1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
12.
Fingerhut, A.W., Peplau, L.A., & Gable, S.L. ( 2010). Identity, minority stress and psychological well-being among gay men and lesbians. Psychology and Sexuality, 1(2), 101-114.
13.
Fingerhut, A.W., Peplau, L.A., & Ghavami, N. ( 2005). A dual-identity framework for understanding lesbian experience . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 129-139.
14.
Gove, W.R., Hughes, M., & Style, C.B. ( 1983). Does marriage have positive effects on the psychological well-being of the individual? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 122-131.
15.
Hansen, T., Moum, T., & Shapiro, A. ( 2007). Relational and individual well-being among cohabitors and married individuals in midlife. Journal of Family Issues , 28, 910-933.
16.
Hendrick, S.S. ( 1988). A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 93-98.
17.
Herek, G.M. ( 2006). Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: A social science perspective. American Psychologist , 61, 607-621.
18.
Hu, Y., & Goldman, N. ( 1990). Mortality differentials by marital status: An international comparison. Demography, 27, 233-250.
19.
Johnson, M.P. ( 1991). Commitment to personal relationships. In W. H. Jones & D. W. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (pp. 117-143). London: Jessica Kingsley.
20.
Johnson, M.P., Caughlin, J.P., & Huston, T.L. ( 1999). The tripartite nature of marital commitment: Personal, moral, and structural reasons to stay married. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 61, 160-177.
21.
Kessler, R.C., & Essex, M. ( 1982). Marital status and depression: The importance of coping resources. Social Forces, 61, 484-507.
22.
Kim, H.K., & McKenry, P.C. ( 2002). The relationship between marriage and psychological well-being: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 885-911.
23.
Kurdek, L.A., & Schmitt, J.P. ( 1986). Early development of relationship quality in heterosexual married, heterosexual cohabiting, gay, and lesbian couples. Developmental Psychology, 22, 305-309.
24.
Lamb, K.A., Lee, G.R., & DeMaris, A. ( 2003). Union formation and depression: Selection and relationship effects. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 953-962.
25.
Lannutti, P.J. ( 2005). For better or worse: Exploring the meanings of same-sex marriage within the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered community. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22 (1), 5-18.
26.
Lannutti, P.J. ( 2007). The influence of same-sex marriage on the understanding of same-sex relationships. Journal of Homosexuality, 53, 135-151.
27.
Lewin, E. ( 1998). Recognizing ourselves: Ceremonies of lesbian and gay commitment. New York: Columbia University Press.
28.
Lewis, R.J., Derlega, V.J., Berndt, A., Morris, L.M., & Rose, S. ( 2001). An empirical analysis of stressors for gay men and lesbians . Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 63-88.
29.
Lorant, V., Kunst, A.E., Huisman, M., Bopp, M., & Mackenbach, J. (2005). A European comparative study of marital status and socio-economic inequalities in suicide. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 2431-2441.
30.
Meyer, I.H. ( 1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38-56.
31.
Meyer, I.H. ( 2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697.
32.
Mohr, J.J., & Daly, C.A. ( 2008). Sexual minority stress and changes in relationship quality in same sex couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 25, 989-1007.
33.
Oswald, R.F., Goldberg, A., Kuvalanka, K., & Clausell, E. ( 2008). Structural and moral commitment among same-sex couples: Relationship duration, religiosity, and parental status. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 411-419.
34.
Oswald, R.F., & Kuvalanka, K.A. (2008). Same-sex couples: Legal complexities. Journal of Family Issues, 29, 1051-1067.
35.
Otis, M.D., Rostosky, S.S., Riggle, E.D.B., & Hamrin, R. ( 2006). Stress and relationship quality in same-sex couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23, 81-99.
36.
Riggle, E.D.B., Rostosky, S.S., Couch, R., Brodnicki, C., Campbell, J., & Savage, T. ( 2006). To have or not to have: Advance planning by same-sex couples. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 3, 22-32.
37.
Ross, C.E., Mirowsky, J., & Goldsteen, K. ( 1990). The impact of the family on health: The decade in review . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 1059-1078.
38.
Rusbult, C.E., Martz, J.M., & Agnew, C.R. ( 1998). The investment model scale: Measuring commitment level, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. Personal Relationships, 5, 357-391.
39.
Solomon, S.E., Rothblum, E.D., & Balsam, K.F. ( 2004). Pioneers in partnership: Lesbian and gay male couples in civil unions compared with those not in civil unions and married heterosexual siblings. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 275-286.
40.
Stanley, S.M., & Markman, H.J. ( 1992). Assessing commitment in personal relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 595-608.
41.
Stiers, G.A. ( 1999). From this day forward: Commitment, marriage, and family in lesbian and gay relationships. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
42.
US General Accounting Office (2004). Defense of Marriage Act, GAO-04-353R, 23 January 2004. Retrieved July 13, 2009, from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf
43.
Waite, L.J. ( 1995). Does marriage matter? Demography, 32, 483-507.
44.
Waldron, I., Hughes, M.E., & Brooks, T.L. ( 1996). Marriage protection and marriage selection: Prospective evidence for reciprocal effects of marital status and health. Social Science & Medicine, 43, 113-123.
