Associations between perceived parental psychological control and internalizing difficulties in emerging adulthood

Abstract

Our study investigated the associations among two expressions of perceived parental psychological control (dependency-oriented parental control [DPC] and achievement-oriented parental control [APC]), identity, and internalizing difficulties among college-attending emerging adults. In particular, our aim was to examine the potential role of identity in the pathways linking both DPC and APC to internalizing difficulties. Our participants included 495 Italian college students (49% males), between 19 and 28 years of age (mean = 23.37 years, standard deviation = 2.35). Our findings highlighted the existence of associations between APC, identity, and internalizing difficulties. Specifically, APC was negatively related to identity that, in turn, was related to both anxiety and depressive symptoms. Moreover, APC showed direct effects on internalizing difficulties, whereas DPC had neither direct nor indirect effects on the outcomes. Overall, our findings highlighted the importance of examining the different contribution of the two forms of parental psychological control to emerging adults’ internalizing difficulties via identity.

Keywords

Emerging adulthood identity internalizing difficulties parenting psychological control

In the last decades, there has been an increasing interest in extending the study of the parental psychological control into emerging adulthood. This developmental period that has been outlined to occur approximately between 18 and 28 years of age (Arnett, 2004) is very interesting for the study of the issues related to the parent–child relationships because parents continue to play a significant role although individuals increasingly display autonomous functioning (Costa, Soenens, Gugliandolo, Cuzzocrea, & Larcan, 2015; Inguglia et al., 2016; Nelson, Padilla-Walker, & Nielson, 2015; Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012; Padilla-Walker, Nelson, & Knapp, 2014). According to Padilla-Walker and Nelson (2012), since emerging adults are in a period of being “in-between” (Arnett, 2004, p. 8), their parents try to reach a balance between fostering their strivings to gain more autonomy and providing them with the support that is needed to successfully do so. For instance, parents are supposed to step back and allow their children to make life decisions on their own, based on values and attitudes they have established for themselves. In such a situation, attempts to limit children’s autonomy and exert controlling parenting were shown to be detrimental for emerging adults and associated with negative outcomes (Abaied & Emond, 2013; Inguglia et al., 2016; Nelson et al., 2015).

Psychological control is the tendency to pressure children to comply with parents’ agenda through insidious and manipulative tactics, such as guilt induction, shaming, and love withdrawal (Barber & Harmon, 2002; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Luyten, 2010). Based on Blatt’s theory (2004), Soenens, Vansteenkiste, and Luyten (2010) distinguished between two expressions of parental psychological control. One dimension, labeled as dependency-oriented psychological control (DPC), refers to the use of psychological control to keep children within close physical and emotional boundaries. The other one, labeled as achievement-oriented psychological control (APC), refers to the use of psychological control to pressure their children to excel in performance-relevant contexts (e.g., in academics or sports). Some authors have demonstrated that DPC and APC are positively correlated to each other suggesting that parents who use psychological control in one domain tend also to use psychological control in the other domain (Inguglia et al., 2016; Soenens et al., 2010). Research (i.e., Inguglia et al., 2016; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2010) has also found that both forms of parental control are positively associated with internalizing difficulties, such as depressive symptoms and anxiety, in emerging adulthood. Notwithstanding these similarities, scholars have demonstrated that DPC and APC can be reliably distinguished (Inguglia et al., 2016; Soenens et al., 2010). For instance, Soenens et al. (2010) have shown that they are related to different measures of perceived family climate and parenting style. In particular, APC is uniquely related to perceptions of parents as uninvolved, cold, distant, and unresponsive to distress, whereas DPC is less consistently related to experiences of parents as cold and unresponsive. Moreover, even though DPC and APC are both related to internalizing difficulties, they seem to follow differential pathways. For instance, Soenens et al. (2010) found that DPC and APC are associated with children’s internalizing problems through the action of two different intervening variables, dependency, and self-criticism. In particular, DPC was found to be specifically related to children’s depressive symptoms via dependency, while the association between APC and depressive symptoms was mediated by self-criticism.

According to Barber, Bean, and Erickson (2002), an important task for researchers is to examine mediating mechanisms that may serve to explain the linkages between parental psychological control and children’s adjustment. Indeed, some studies have highlighted that there are variables playing a mediating role in the relationship between parental psychological control and internalizing difficulties in emerging adulthood (Costa et al., 2015; Inguglia et al., 2016; Luyckx, Soenens, Goossens, Vansteenkiste, & Berzonsky 2007). One of these variables is identity, defined as one’s ability to maintain inner sameness and continuity in different settings, such as at home, school, and with friends (Erikson, 1968).

The vast majority of the theoretical models that have been introduced to describe and explain the process of identity development from late adolescence through emerging adulthood are derived from Erikson’s theory (Crocetti, Meeus, Ritchie, Meca, & Schwartz, 2014; Schwartz et al., 2015). Erikson (1968) conceives identity as a bipolar dimension, ranging from identity synthesis (i.e., knowing who one is and where one is headed) to identity confusion (i.e., feeling lost and mixed up). Despite Erikson’s theorizing has provided the foundation for identity studies, the most recent research has elaborated on Marcia’s (1966) identity status model (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008; Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2006; Luyckx et al., 2008; Meca et al., 2015). Few studies have attempted to investigate directly identity synthesis and confusion (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Wang, & Olthuis, 2009; Schwartz et al., 2015).

The relevance of the role of identity in the relationship between parental psychological control and internalizing difficulties is supported by specific arguments. First, the use of intrusive techniques and psychological control by parents was found to be detrimental for the development of identity in emerging adulthood (i.e., Luyckx et al., 2007). Psychological control in fact may inhibit children’s experiences of autonomy, impinge on their sense of self and their ability to develop personal identity (McLean & Syed, 2015), as well as impair their ability to engage in exploratory processes about the identity (Kins, Soenens, & Beyers, 2012; Luyckx et al., 2007). Second, identity was found to be related to emerging adults’ internalizing difficulties (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Luyckx, Meca, & Ritchie, 2013; Schwartz et al., 2009). In particular, a synthesized sense of identity protects against internalizing symptoms (Ritchie et al., 2013; Schwartz et al., 2015), whereas identity confusion is associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression (McLean & Syed, 2015). Although it can be expected that parental psychological control would be related to dysfunctional identity development and by this way to internalizing problems, to our knowledge, there are no studies that have tested this hypothesis either in adolescence or in emerging adulthood. Nevertheless, Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Luyten, Duriez, and Goossens (2005) have found evidence for a similar model in which maladaptive perfectionism, which is often associated with identity confusion (Luyckx et al., 2008), mediates the relationship between parental psychological control and depression. However, this topic is still understudied and there is value in exploring the role of identity to further explain the relationship between parental psychological control and internalizing difficulties.

The general purpose of our study was to investigate the associations among parental psychological control (in terms of DPC and APC), identity, and internalizing difficulties (in terms of anxiety state and depressive symptoms) in Italian college-attending emerging adults. We chose this population because college environment provides important resources for developing a sense of identity by offering a range of social influences and lifestyle choices (Schwartz et al., 2015).

In particular, our aim was to examine the potential role played by identity in the pathways linking both DPC and APC to internalizing difficulties. Framed from a perspective integrating Blatt’s theory (2004) of psychological control and Erikson’s theory of identity (1968), we hypothesized that both DPC and APC would be negatively associated with emerging adults’ identity that, in turn, would be negatively related to internalizing difficulties. Gender was considered as a control variable for internalizing difficulties due to the large amount of empirical evidence suggesting differences between males and females in anxiety state and depressive symptoms rates (Dekker et al., 2007; McLean & Anderson, 2009; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Luyten, Duriez, & Goossens, 2005).

Additionally, we explored the potential role of gender as moderator of the hypothesized relations. To our knowledge, there are no studies investigating this issue. Notwithstanding, based on previous studies analyzing the role of gender in the associations between parental psychological control and identity (Luyckx et al., 2007), as well as the association between parental psychological control, depression, and maladaptive perfectionism (Soenens et al., 2005), we hypothesized that the structural relationships among the study variables would generally hold across gender.

Method

Participants and procedure

Participants were 495 college-attending emerging adults (49% males) living in Sicily (Southern Italy), representing a 98% participation rate. Participants’ age ranged between 19 and 28 years (M = 23.37 years, SD = 2.35). Fifty-five percent of participants had mothers with standard college or university graduate and/or graduate professional degrees, and 68% had fathers with standard college or university graduate and/or graduate professional degrees.

Following approval of the authors’ Institutional Review Board, the survey was uploaded to an online research system. The survey website allowed students to give an electronic consent and participants were able to withdraw at any point.

Measures

DPC and APC

Participants were administered the DAPC (Soenens et al., 2010). It consists of two subscales: (a) the DPC refers to the use of psychological control in the domain of parent–child closeness (8 items, e.g., “My parents are only friendly with me if I rely on them instead of on my friends”) and (b) the APC refers to the use of psychological control in the domain of achievement (9 items, e.g. “My parents make me feel guilty if my performance is inferior”). Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Cronbach’s α was .79 and .84 for APC and DPC, respectively.

Identity

Participants were administered the Identity susbcale of the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory ( Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981). It consists of 12 items measuring the extent to which individuals have a clear sense of who they are and what they believe in. Six items are worded in a positive direction reflecting identity synthesis (e.g., “I know what kind of person I am”), and 6 items are worded in a negative direction reflecting identity confusion (e.g., “I don’t really know what I’m all about”). Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Cronbach’s α was .78.

Anxiety state

Participants were administered the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983). It consists of 20 items assessing state anxiety (e.g., “I am tense”). Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = a very bad description of me; 5 = a very good description of me). Cronbach’s α was .84.

Depressive symptoms

Participants were administered the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale ( Radloff, 1977). It consists of 20 items measuring depressive symptoms such as feelings of abandonment (e.g., “I felt depressed”). Participants indicated how often they experienced the symptoms during the past week on a 4-point scale (0 = rarely or none of the time; 3 = most or all of the time). Cronbach’s α was .76

Results

Descriptive statistics

Means (Ms) and standard deviations (SDs) of study variables and correlation coefficients are presented in Table 1. Results showed that APC and DPC were positively associated with each other; moreover, both of them were positively correlated to internalizing difficulties and negatively correlated to identity. Finally, identity was negatively associated with internalizing difficulties.

Table 1.

Means and standard deviations of study variables and correlation coefficients.

	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. DPC	–
2. APC	.734***	–
3. Identity	−.243***	−.311***	–
4. Anxiety state	.173***	.245***	−.513***	–
5. Depressive symptoms	.231***	.300***	−.483***	.651***	–
6. Gender	.043	.011	−.038	.205***	.169***	–
M	1.929	1.844	4.082	2.091	1.884	1.513
SD	0.621	0.644	0.601	0.587	0.496	0.500

Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; DPC = dependency-oriented parental control; APC = achievement-oriented parental control.

***p < .001.

Model of the relations among study variables

In order to evaluate the potential role played by identity in the pathways linking DPC and APC to internalizing difficulties, we tested a series of hierarchically related (nested) models following the procedure suggested for the mediation analysis (MacKinnon, Fairchild, & Fritz, 2007), even though to truly test mediation itself, we would have collected longitudinal data. The analyses were performed with Mplus 7.0 (Muthen & Muthen, 1998–2012). The maximum likelihood estimation method was used to fit the models and the bootstrapping procedure was employed to obtain estimates of indirect effects, standard errors, and confidence intervals.

First, a direct effect model (M0) was run in which only the parenting variables (predictors) and internalizing difficulties (outcomes) were specified in order to evaluate their relations in the absence of identity (mediator). The model fitted the data well (see Table 2). Both anxiety state and depressive symptoms were associated positively with APC (β = .27, p < .001, for anxiety, and β = .30, p < .001, for depressive symptoms), but they were unrelated to DPC.

Table 2.

Goodness of fit indexes for the mediation models.

	χ²	df	CFI	RMSEA	Model	▵χ²	▵df	▵CFI	▵RMSEA
M0: Direct effect model	2.85	2	0.997	.031	–	–	–	–	–
M1: Full mediation model	22.64**	7	0.971	.067	–	–	–	–	–
M2: Partial mediation model for APC	4.86	5	1.00	0	M1 vs. M2	17.78***	2	.008	.006

Note. CFI = comparative fit index; APC = achievement-oriented parental control; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

**p < .01;***p < .001.

Second, a full mediation model (M1) was run in which the predictors had no direct associations with outcomes but only indirect effects through the mediator in order to evaluate if identity fully mediated the effects of parenting variables on internalizing difficulties. This model fitted the data well (see Table 2). Identity was associated negatively with APC (β = −.29, p < .001), but it was unrelated to DPC. Both anxiety and depressive symptoms were associated negatively with identity (β = −.51, p < .001, for anxiety, and β = −.48, p < .001, for depressive symptoms).

Third, a partial Mediation model for APC (M2) was run in which APC had direct associations with outcomes in addition to its indirect associations through the mediator in order to evaluate whether identity partially intervened in the effects of APC on internalizing difficulties. There was evidence of a partial indirect effect of APC if this model fitted the data better than the full mediation model M1. This model fitted the data better than M1 (see Table 2). The standardized solution is reported in Figure 1. A closer examination of parameter estimates revealed that (a) the direct effect of DPC on identity was not significant and (b) the direct effect of APC on identity was significant, like its direct effects on anxiety and depressive symptoms. Results also showed that (a) the indirect effect of APC on anxiety was significant (standardized estimate was .14, z = 4.49, p < .001, 99% CI [0.06, 0.21]), with a medium effect size (k ² = .14, p < .05) and (b) the indirect effect of APC on depressive symptoms was also significant (standardized estimate was .12, z = 4.39, p < .001, 99% CI [0.05, 0.19]), with a medium effect size (k ² = .12, p < .05).

Figure 1.

Statistical mediation model. Standardized solution. Note. All significant paths (p < .05) were reported in solid lines, except that represented with a dashed line.

Moderator role of gender

In the final step, we tested a moderated mediation model (MacKinnon et al., 2007) to examine whether the hypothesized mediating role of identity (mediator) in the link between APC (predictor) and anxiety state and depressive symptoms (outcomes) depended on gender, using a multiple group path analysis. A significant moderated mediation is indicated when the indirect effects of predictor on outcomes through the mediator vary depending on gender. Parameters were simultaneously estimated for two separate covariance matrices (male vs. female) in a series of hierarchically related (nested) models.

First, an unconstrained partial mediation model for APC (M0) was run, in which APC had direct associations with outcomes in addition to indirect associations through identity, and all parameters were freely estimated through the two groups. This model fitted the data well (see Table 3).

Table 3.

Goodness of fit indexes for the moderated mediation models.

	χ²	df	CFI	Model	▵χ²	▵df	▵CFI	▵RMSEA
M0: Unconstrained partial mediation model	1.26	4	1.00	–	–	–	–	–
M1: Equal partial mediation model for direct effects	1.29	6	1.00	M1 vs. M0	.03	2	0	0
M2: Equal partial mediation model for direct and indirect effects	6.17	10	1.00	M2 vs. M1	4.88	4	0	0

Note. CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

Second, an equal partial mediation model for direct effects (M1) was run, in which cross-group equality constraints were imposed on the direct effects of APC on outcomes to test the invariance of these parameters. The model fit comparison with M0 did not indicate a significant deterioration of the fit. Constraining the structural coefficients for the direct effects of APC on depressive symptoms and anxiety to be invariant across males and females did not lead to a significant deterioration in model fit, suggesting that the direct effects of APC on depressive and anxiety symptoms did not significantly differ across gender.

Finally, an equal partial mediation model for both direct and indirect effects (M2) was run, in which cross-group equality constraints were also imposed on the effects involving identity to test the invariance of the indirect effects of predictors on outcomes through the mediator. The model fit comparison with M1 did not indicate a significant deterioration of the fit; therefore, the results suggested that M2 was the best-fitting model. Constraining the structural coefficients for the direct effects of APC on identity and of identity on depressive symptoms and anxiety to be invariant across males and females did not lead to a significant deterioration in model fit. Globally, results suggested that the indirect effects of APC on depressive and anxiety symptoms through identity did not significantly differ across gender.

Discussion

Our study contributes to the understanding of the associations among parental psychological control (in terms of DPC and APC), identity, and internalizing difficulties (in terms of anxiety state and depressive symptoms) in Italian college-attending emerging adults. Our hypotheses were only partly confirmed because we found that identity did not fully intervene in the relation between APC and internalizing difficulties, while DPC was unrelated to both identity and internalizing difficulties.

APC was negatively associated with identity that, in turn, was negatively related to both anxiety and depressive symptoms. These findings probably can be explained considering that the representation of parents as highly demanding and exerting high pressure to excel in performance may be particularly detrimental for emerging adults who attend the college. Indeed, they enjoy high levels of freedom from their parents because they spend a lot of time in the college outside their family houses. In such a context, emerging adults may experience higher levels of autonomy than the previous period of their life, as well as feeling freer to make some choices (i.e., about social contacts, social activities, and friendships) on the basis of their own values and attitudes. However, one domain in which emerging adults may still experience some pressure by their parents concerns the academic performances (Deb, Strodl, & Sun, 2015). The perception of parents as controlling and expecting them to reach very high academic standards may have negative consequences, especially when parents tend to induce guilty when their children perform less than perfectly. This perception may be associated with emerging adults’ tendency to be anxious and to criticize themselves for failing to meet the standards imposed by the parents (Blatt & Homann, 1992; Soenens et al., 2005) and may result in negative outcomes in the process of identity formation. As suggested by Luyckx, Soenens, Goossens, Vansteenkiste, and Berzonsky (2007), emerging adults who perceive their parents as intrusively controlling appear to experience difficulties in establishing a clear sense of identity.

In light of these considerations, feeling excessively controlled with regard to the personal achievements may be associated with a lack of identity synthesis that, in turn, may enhance the depressive and anxious states, which are normally linked to the parental control (Barber & Harmon, 2002). Instead, parents who show respect for their children’s inner needs and standards are likely to stimulate the identity synthesis and by this way the expression of lesser levels of internalizing difficulties (Blatt, 2004).

Contrary to our predictions, data showed that DPC had no significant associations with identity as well as with internalizing difficulties. These findings can be explained in light of some reasons. First, the cultural significance of DPC compared to APC in the research context. In Italy, the prevailing cultural model is one of autonomy as identity individuation within the family of origin, in which autonomy goals are encouraged along with strong family ties and interdependence (Inguglia et al., 2016; Manzi, Regalia, Pelucchi, & Fincham, 2012). Thus, close relationships with parents are valued and endorsed by the family and other socialization agents (Claes et al., 2011; Manzi et al., 2012). These features are even more pronounced in the Southern regions of Italy, such as Sicily, where individualism is less emphasized, and the family plays a more significant socialization role than in the Northern regions (Costa et al., 2015; Inguglia, Ingoglia, Liga, Lo Coco, & Lo Cricchio, 2015; Jurado Guerrero & Naldini, 1997). In such a context, the request to keep close physical and emotional boundaries with family, that is, typical of parents who are high in DPC, is likely to be seen by emerging adults as something normative and less detrimental for their psychological well-being than APC. These arguments are more consistent if we consider that parents who are perceived to be high in DPC are not necessarily experienced as lacking in warmth and closeness, whereas parents who are perceived to be high in APC are more likely to be experienced as cold and distant (Soenens et al., 2010).

However, our findings about the associations of DPC with both identity and internalizing difficulties are not easy to interpret if we consider that it is highly correlated to APC. More research will be needed to better understand the link between DPC and psychosocial adjustment, and its unique contribution over and above APC.

Finally, with regard to the second aim of the study, as expected, we found that gender did not moderate the associations among the study variables. In line with other researches on similar topics (i.e., Luyckx et al., 2007; Soenens et al., 2005), our data showed that the relationships among parental psychological control, internalizing difficulties, and identity generally hold across gender. These findings suggest that mechanisms underlying the linking pathways between psychological control, identity, and internalizing difficulties are similar for females and males. The gender differences extensively evidenced in the levels of anxiety state and depressive symptoms could be attributed to other constructs, such as biological or personality factors (McLean & Anderson, 2009), which have not been taken into account in the present study.

Limitations and level of significance of the study

The present study should be considered in light of some weaknesses. First and foremost, the cross-sectional nature of the study design precludes us from concluding the directionality of the associations among the variables. Even though we used a data analytic procedure generally employed to test mediation hypotheses in order to examine the potential role played by identity in the pathways linking both DPC and APC to internalizing difficulties, we are aware that longitudinal data are needed to truly test a mediation model. Thus, future longitudinal studies are required to examine the presumed processes in a more dynamic fashion and, in particular, to allow for a more appropriate test of the causal ordering of the study variables. Second, in the study, psychological control of both parents was assessed, although it would be better to perform future studies considering separate items for mothers’ and fathers’ psychological control to explore the unique role of each of them. Third, future research should be performed using a multi-informant assessment including parental reports or observations of psychological controlling practices although previous research suggests that adolescents’ reports on how they perceive their parents’ behavior is not inherently inferior to more objective measures (Chen, Greenberger, Lester, Dong, & Guo, 1998). Fourth, the study involves a relatively homogeneous sample of White emerging adults attending college and it would be better for future research to recruit ethnically diverse samples as well as to make cross-national comparisons to shed light on how the relations of APC and DPC with identity and internalizing difficulties can vary in different cultural contexts. Fifth, looking at parent’s educational attainment, it can be noted that about 30% of the participants are first generation college students and this could have affected our findings. For instance, some studies showed that first-generation students experience lower perceived levels of family support than second-generation students (McCarron & Inkelas, 2006). Thus, future research in this topic should take into account this aspect. Finally, further studies should include also emerging adults not attending college to understand whether these conclusions could be generalized to them.

Despite these limitations, our study makes a novel contribution to the literature because it extends the understanding of the association of perceived parental psychological control with internalizing difficulties during emerging adulthood by considering its link to identity, as well as the role of two separate dimensions of parental psychological control (DPC and APC), and using a measure tapping directly into Erikson’s concepts of identity synthesis and confusion. Furthermore, our findings contribute to the debate about the cultural meaning of psychological control (Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Van Petegem, 2015).

Together, our findings enhance the knowledge of factors that can contribute to the adjustment of college-attending emerging adults living in Italy through a theoretical perspective integrating Blatt’s theory (2004) of psychological control with Erikson’s theory (1968) of identity in the study of emerging adults. However, these conclusions are likely to be generalized to other college-attending emerging adults who live in contexts characterized simultaneously by the emphasis on strong family ties and the promotion of children’s autonomy, such as the Southern regions of Italy. Overall, our study provides evidence for two main facts. First, there are intervening mechanisms that may serve to understand the linkages between parental psychological control and emerging adults’ adjustment. Second, although parental psychological control is often associated with adverse developmental outcomes consistently across cultures, the effect of the different dimensions of psychological control (DPC and APC) on emerging adults’ adjustment can be moderated by the cultural features of the context.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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