Alone,together: Fear of missing out mediates the link between peer exclusion in WhatsApp classmate groups and psychological adjustment in early-adolescent teens

Abstract

Because of the high prevalence of smartphone use in early adolescence, communication between classroom peers increasingly occurs via online chat groups. Recent studies indicate that online classmate groups are places in which different forms of peer exclusion can occur, including being banned from participating in the groups, not being invited to join them, or being shunned by online peers. In order to avoid being offended by peers, students may even decide to self-exclude from participating in the groups. Peer exclusion represents a significant source of suffering for early adolescents, with long-lasting consequences on their well-being. In this study, we investigated the relationship between exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups and emotional symptoms among early adolescents. Additionally, the fear of missing out (FoMO) was examined as a potential mediator of the relationship between peer exclusion and emotional distress. The sample consisted of 398 middle schoolers (age: M = 12.54 years; SD = 0.96) residing in Italy. We found that positive relationships existed between peer exclusion, emotional symptoms, and FoMO. Findings supported the role of FoMO as a mediator in the link between peer exclusion and emotional symptoms. Results are discussed in light of the implications for the assessment of the quality of student-student interactions.

Keywords

Cybervictimization early adolescents fear of missing out online chat groups peer exclusion psychological adjustment social development WhatsApp

Introduction

Computer-mediated communication via smartphone applications constitutes a major component in the lives of children and adolescents in today’s world. Among US teenagers, 95% report having a personal smartphone or access to one (Anderson & Jiang, 2018), while a recent epidemiological report from Italy indicates that teenagers typically receive their first personal smartphone at the age of 11 (Smorti et al., 2019).

With more than two billion active users globally, WhatsApp is one of the most used instant messaging applications (Lang, 2020). The prevalence of WhatsApp use is highest in European countries, where the Netherlands with 85%, Spain with 83.1%, and Italy with 83% are the leading markets for the app. WhatsApp is extremely popular among early adolescents (Sprugnoli et al., 2018). Adolescents use it to interact with their classmates in both private chats and public chats involving their classmates, namely in WhatsApp classmate groups (Aizenkot & Kashy-Rosenbaum, 2018; 2019). Recent findings indicate WhatsApp classmate groups to be places in which cybervictimization may occur (Kashy-Rosenbaum & Aizenkot, 2020). Existing studies involving children and early adolescents from Israel found a prevalence ranging from 7.8% to 31% of students who reported some form of peer victimization in WhatsApp classmate groups, with no consistent age and gender differences (Aizenkot, 2020; Aizenkot & Kashy-Rosenbaum, 2019; Kashy-Rosenbaum & Aizenkot, 2020). Beyond verbal aggression, a sizable group of students reported experiencing some form of peer exclusion, including being banned from or not being invited to participate in classmate groups by other students; additionally, students reported self-excluding from classmate groups in order not to experience offensive responses from other students that may lower their social status among peers (Aizenkot & Kashy-Rosenbaum, 2019). Findings suggest that these forms of online exclusion may be indicative of the student’s overall relationship quality with school peers, such that adolescents reporting poorer student-student relationships may also be more likely to experience peer exclusion in online environments (Lohbeck & Petermann, 2018).

Rejection by peers can be a psychologically distressing experience in adolescence. By compromising feelings of belonging and relatedness to others, perceptions of competence and efficacy, and autonomy, this rejection may put at risk the attainment of key developmental tasks (Zimmer-Gembeck, 2016). Ultimately, exclusion by peers may exert both immediate and long-lasting effects on children’s psychological adjustment, and its negative relationship with emotional distress may be particularly relevant during early adolescence (Forbes et al., 2019). One specific construct that could prove useful in explaining the link between peer exclusion and emotional distress is the fear of missing out (FoMO; Przybylski et al., 2013). FoMO has been defined as “a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent” (Przybylski et al., 2013, p. 1841). FoMO can be regarded as a form of social anxiety that presents itself in the form of the desire to maintain social connections with own acquaintances (Riordan et al., 2015). Further, FoMO has been linked to increased sensitivity to stress related to experiences of neglect and negative reactions by peers in online environments and to addictive social media use (Fabris et al., 2020) and heightened emotional symptoms (Dempsey et al., 2019). Based on these findings, it is reasonable to hypothesize that experiencing peer exclusion from online classmate groups may put adolescents at an increased risk of FoMO (e.g., fostering feelings of apprehension concerning being disconnected from their own social groups) and that this may ultimately lead to an increase in their emotional symptoms. To our knowledge, this link has not been investigated in previous studies.

In light of these considerations, in this study we aim to explore the association between exclusion from online classmate groups, FoMO, and emotional symptoms in a sample of early adolescents. Specifically, we investigate the relationship between a specific form of peer exclusion occurring in WhatsApp classmate groups and emotional well-being in early adolescents. We hypothesize that exclusion from online classmate groups might show a positive relationship with FoMO and emotional symptoms and that FoMO might mediate the link between peer exclusion and emotional symptoms.

Method

Participants and procedure

We initially contacted 530 early adolescents from five schools located in Northern Italy. Students (and parents) were informed of the nature and objectives of the study, data confidentiality, and their ability to refuse to participate and withdraw from the study at any time. The research was approved by the university institutional review board (n. 182567).

Informed consent was obtained from 418 students (and their parents). After excluding 20 students not using WhatsApp (or failing to provide information about WhatsApp use), the sample consisted of 398 students (51.3% females, mean age = 12.54 years (SD = 0.96), range = 11–15). Based on preliminary information, all students reported using WhatsApp on a personal smartphone, except for five students who reported not having a smartphone and accessing it using a parent’s smartphone instead. The majority of students (75%) reported using WhatsApp daily, while the rest reported using it less frequently (25%). On average, students reported currently participating in 1.52 (SD = 0.82) WhatsApp classmate groups.

Instruments

Exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups

Exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups was assessed by adapting items derived from the questionnaire by Aizenkot and Kashy-Rosenbaum (2019). For the purpose of this study, we selected 4 items assessing the participant’s frequency of exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups: (1) classmates blocked the participant from participating in an existing group; (2) classmates did not include him/her in new classmate groups he/she was willing to participate in; (3) classmates shunned him/her in WhatsApp classmate groups; and (4) the participant self-excluded from participating in WhatsApp classmate groups due to a fear of getting offensive responses. Students reported the frequency by which they experienced these events using a 5-point scale (1 = Never, 2 = Once over the last month, 3 = 2–3 times over the last month, 4 = Once a week, 5 = Several times a week). Responses were summed to create a total score. Exploratory factor analysis performed via principal component analysis returned a single factor corresponding to 59% of the explained variance, supporting unidimensionality. Reliability was adequate (McDonald’s ω = .72; Cronbach’s α = .71).

Fear of missing out

We used an Italian adaptation of the FoMO scale (Przybylski et al., 2013). The FoMO scale includes 10 items in the form of statements about fears, worries, and anxieties that adolescents may have in relation to being out of touch with events, experiences, and conversations involving their peers. Sample items are the following: “I fear others have more rewarding experiences than me,” “I get anxious when I don’t know what my friends are up to,” and “It bothers me when I miss an opportunity to meet up with friends.” Items were rated using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all true of me to 5 = Extremely true of me). Responses were summed to create a total score. Confirmatory factor analysis supported unidimensionality (χ² = 68.74, d = 33, p < .001; CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSE = .05, SRMR = .07). Reliability was adequate (McDonald’s ω = .82; Cronbach’s α = .81).

Emotional symptoms

Emotional symptoms were assessed using a subscale of the Italian version (Marzocchi et al., 2004) of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman et al., 1998). The subscale includes 5 items rated on a 3-point Likert scale (0 = Not true to 2 = Certainly true). Sample items are as follows: “I am often unhappy, down-hearted, or tearful,” “I worry a lot,” and “I have many fears, I am easily scared.” Responses were averaged to create a total score. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the unidimensionality of the scale (χ² = 7.64, df = 5, p < .18; CFI = 1.00, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .04). Reliability was adequate (McDonald’s ω = .71; Cronbach’s α = .71).

Strategy of analysis

First, we computed descriptive statistics and Pearson’s correlations for the study measures. Then, we performed mediation analysis via multiple regression to examine the effects of peer exclusion from WhatsApp groups on both emotional symptoms and FoMO and explore the mediating role of FoMO in the relationship between peer exclusion and students’ emotional symptoms. Figure 1 shows a diagram illustrating the regression paths examined. In estimating path coefficients, we controlled for students’ age, gender, time spent using their smartphone (hours), daily WhatsApp use (Yes = 1; else = 0), and the number of WhatsApp classmate groups in which students participated. Effects and relative 95% confidence intervals were estimated using bias-corrected bootstrapping with 10000 samples (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Effects were deemed statistically significant if 95% confidence intervals did not include zero. Analyses were performed using SPSS 23 and the Process macro (Hayes, 2016).

Figure 1.

Diagram for the mediation model with estimated path coefficient.

Results

The results of the correlations are shown in Table 1. We found age was positively correlated with time spent using a smartphone and with daily WhatsApp use. Gender (being male) was negatively correlated with time spent using a smartphone, daily WhatsApp use, FoMO, and emotional symptoms. Time spent on a smartphone positively correlated with daily WhatsApp use, number of WhatsApp groups the adolescent participated in, exclusion from WhatsApp groups, FoMO, and emotional symptoms. FoMO positively correlated with daily WhatsApp use, exclusion from WhatsApp groups, and emotional symptoms. Finally, exclusion from WhatsApp groups positively correlated with emotional symptoms.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables (n = 398).

		M/%	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1	Age	12.55	0.96
2	Gender (1 = Male; 0 = Female)	51.30	—	.02
3	Time spent using smartphone (hours)	3.04	1.94	.16**	−.13*
4	Daily WhatsApp use (Yes = 1, else = 0)	75.40	—	.18**	−.16**	.32**
5	Number of WhatsApp classmates’ groups	1.52	0.83	−.08	−.03	.14**	.10*
6	Fear of Missing Out	22.15	7.44	.01	−.15**	.25**	.20**	.11*
7	Exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups	5.10	2.15	.01	−.02	.12*	−.03	−.01	.29**
8	Emotional symptoms	3.59	2.55	.04	−.34**	.27*	.09	.01	.42**	.30**

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01.

Figure 1 shows the results of the regression analyses. For ease of visualization, only the main effects are reported, while the effects of control variables are reported in the text. As regards main effects, we found that exclusion from WhatsApp groups was positively linked with both FoMO and emotional symptoms. Additionally, when controlling for the effect of exclusion from WhatsApp groups, FoMO showed a positive link with emotional symptoms.

Next, we look at the effects of control variables on FoMO and emotional symptoms (i.e., dashed lines in the diagram in Figure 1). Positive effects on FoMO emerged for time spent using a smartphone (b = 0.59, 95% CI [0.21, 0.97], $β = 0.15$ ) and daily WhatsApp use (b = 2.51, 95% CI [0.97, 4.11], $β = 0.15$ ), while male reported lower levels of FoMO (b = −0.24, 95% CI [−0.90, 0.43], $β - 0.10$ ). Males showed significantly lower scores on emotional symptoms (b = −1.41, 95% CI [−1.84, −0.98], $β = 0.29$ ), while time spent on a smartphone had a positive association with emotional symptoms (b = 0.20, 95% CI [0.08, 0.34], $β = 0.16$ ). Remaining control variables showed no effect on the study outcomes.

Finally, we found a significant indirect effect linking exclusion from WhatsApp groups to emotional symptoms via the mediation effect of FoMO (b = 0.10, 95% CI [0.05, 0.16], Standardized indirect effect = 0.08). Compared with the total effect (not shown in the figure, b = 0.31, 95% CI [0.5, 0.16], $β = 0.27$ ) via the ratio of indirect-to-total effect, 32% of the effect linking exclusion from WhatsApp groups with emotional symptoms appeared to be mediated by FoMO.

Discussion

The aim of the present study was to investigate the interplay between exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups, FoMO, and emotional symptoms in a sample of early adolescents. More specifically, we hypothesized that peer exclusion might show a positive association with emotional symptoms and FoMO, and that FoMO might, in turn, play a role in mediating the link between peer exclusion and emotional symptoms. The results of the mediation analyses supported these hypotheses as we found that both exclusion from classmate groups and FoMO were positively linked with emotional symptoms. Further, we found that FoMO was a significant mediator of the link between exclusion from classmate groups and emotional symptoms. That is, adolescents who experienced exclusion from online groups of classmates were also more likely to show a heightened FoMO (i.e., a higher level of apprehension about losing connections with peers) which, in turn, was positively associated with emotional symptoms. These findings are coherent with previous research, indicating that social exclusion can negatively affect adolescents’ psychological health by jeopardizing the fulfillment of one of the fundamental needs of individuals, namely the need to belong (Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2018).

Based on our findings, peer exclusion from WhatsApp classmate groups showed an association with emotional symptoms both directly and indirectly through the mediating role of FoMO. Previous literature showed that FoMO mediates the link between social media use and psychological well-being (Baker et al., 2016). However, to our knowledge, this is the first study to observe the mediating role of FoMO between a specific form of cybervictimization (i.e., peer exclusion) and the emotional well-being of adolescents, opening up new prospects for research.

Our findings are not without limitations. First, the use of cross-sectional data hinders us from drawing definite inferences about causal relationships between constructs. Further, social desirability may have compromised the quality of the response data. Future studies should consider adopting a longitudinal approach and collecting information about technology use using both multi-informant and objective approaches. Lastly, we did not collect information about students’ exposure to offline peer exclusion, and, in tracking online peer exclusion, we did not consider events on other online platforms beyond those occurring on WhatsApp (e.g., on social media). Employing a more comprehensive assessment of both offline and online forms of peer exclusion would have provided us with a clearer view of the relative importance of offline and online experiences in terms of students’ adjustment.

To conclude, this study provides novel findings concerning the association between a specific form of peer exclusion (i.e., exclusion from online classmate groups) and heightened emotional symptoms in early adolescence. Of interest, this link appears to be mediated by an increase in the fear of experiencing disconnection from peers, namely FoMO. These findings have practical implications for the assessment and monitoring of student-student interactions, as researchers and teachers need to be aware that many things are happening regarding students beyond those that are observed in the classroom. Problematic offline interactions may bleed over into the online environment, away from the reach of adult caregivers, and continue to exert a negative effect on both students’ emotional well-being, and the overall classroom climate. Additionally, because we examined peer rejection events taking place in online classmate groups, our findings are also relevant for research that focuses on these dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic, a time when schools closed and the reliance on online environments has increased in salience for children and adolescents. In this context, assessments aimed at the early detection of rejected students should tap into information about online experiences involving classroom peers.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Claudio Longobardi

Open research statement

As part of IARR’s encouragement of open research practices, the author(s) have provided the following information: This research was pre-registered. The aspects of the research that were pre-registered were IRB n. 182567. The registration was submitted to University of Turin institutional review board. The data used in the research are available. The data can be obtained via email by the corresponding author. The materials used in the research are available. The materials can be obtained via email by the corresponding author.

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