Casual sexual relationships and their increase over time among Israeli emerging adults: Do these associate with the quality of future relationships?

Abstract

While casual sexual relationships (CSREs) have become common among emerging adults, it is unknown whether these affect future relationships. Guided by a developmental perspective, the current study questions whether engagement in CSREs might be associated with the quality of future relationships by serving as a model of instability. Data were collected from 110 Israeli emerging adults at ages 23, 25, and 28. Contrary to our expectations, the level of engagement in CSREs at age 23 was associated only with a lower capacity to resolve problems and a higher tendency to downplay disagreements at age 28. However, an increase in the level of engagement in CSREs over the 5 years was associated with future negative relationship outcomes, greater avoidant romantic attachment, a tendency to conceal from one’s partner, and a lower sense of certainty and capacity to manage disagreements. Conceptually, findings suggest that when engagement in casual sex is repeated and increases over time, it might become a more stable pattern of behavior and have an adverse effect on future competence in handling a romantic relationship.

Keywords

Carryover of relationships casual sex casual sexual relationships emerging adults longitudinal study romantic relationships

Introduction

While some emerging adults are involved in stable and intimate relationships, a substantial and increasing number have been observed to be involved in CSREs (Boisvert & Poulin, 2016; Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013; Rauer et al., 2013). Engagement in CSREs has become socially normative among college students and young adults (Barriger & Vélez-Blasini, 2013). Anders et al. (2019) found that young people reported a number of benefits that motivated them to engage in casual sex, such as having fun, fulfilling sexual desires, and gaining social status, while avoiding the commitment associated with romantic relationships (Bisson & Levine, 2009). Earlier studies described and examined different patterns of CSREs, such as hook-ups, one-night stand encounters, or friends with benefits. Some patterns of CSREs might differ from one another. For example, contrary to one-night encounters, friends with benefits - engaging in sexual activity with someone in an ongoing friendship relationship - may last for an extended period of time. However, Hughes et al., (2005) showed that maintaining a friends with benefits relationship requires rules andthe most common ruleis not to become emotionally too close. In their conceptual discussion of CSREs, Claxton and van Dulmen (2013) suggested that a closer inspection of the different CSREs indicates that the different forms of sexual encounters often are not aimed at establishing intimacy and commitment. For example, participants engaged in casual sexual contexts lack intimacy goals, such as the desire for self-disclosure and the development of mutual dependence (Epstein et al., 2009; Jonason et al., 2011). Considered together and relevant to the aim of the current study to be articulated below, participants in CSREs mainly seek and focus on sexual gratification, and less often pursue the main goals and features of a romantic relationship, such as establishing intimacy or commitment. Despite the accumulating research on CSREs and their prevalence among emerging adults, less is known about the possible effects of engagement in CSREs on the quality of future relationships. The current study aims to examine the association between earlier involvement in CSREs and the quality of romantic relationships in the future.

Conceptualizing sexuality within the framework of developmental psychology (Vasilenko et al., 2014) suggests that casual sexual encounters, similar to romantic relationships, are a pattern of interaction that takes place between two partners. In their suggestion, Vasilenko et al. follow the seminal work of Hinde (1995) on the nature of relationships. Hinde contended that each interaction between two individuals might be affected by preceding relationships and by expectations about the future. The relationship involves each participant’s feelings, attributions, desires, hopes, expectations, and disappointments. Both during and between interactions, participants may reflect on what happened, compare this with what they want to happen, and imagine what might happen (p. 2). Thus, involvement in CSREs raises feelings and expectations or disappointments, and can be perceived as a pattern of interaction that could affect future behavior. Relatedly, research on adolescent romantic relationships showed that earlier patterns of interaction between romantic partners were carried forward into future relationships (Collins, 2003; Furman & Collibee, 2014).

Casual sexual relationships among emerging adults: A developmental perspective

Involvement in casual sex has increased over the last few decades (Owen et al., 2011; Twenge et al., 2015) and has become quite common among young adults in North America (Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013), as well as other societies (Sato & Iwasawa, 2015; Shulman et al., 2018). However, despite its high prevalence among young people, few studies have examined the effect of engagement in casual sex on future relationships. For example, Vasilenko et al. (2016) found that earlier engagement in intimate relationships explained a higher likelihood of marriage in the future, while those reporting greater involvement in sexual behavior were less likely to have romantic partners in the future. Raley et al. (2007) found that involvement in non-romantic sexual relationships was positively associated with future cohabitation only, which tended to dissolve over time and did not lead to marriage. Conceptually, these studies suggest that earlier involvement in intimate relationships enables the development of interpersonal skills required to facilitate communication and handle a relationship. These acquired skills make it easier for individuals to progress toward commitment and marriage (Raley et al., 2007). In contrast, individuals involved in CSREs have fewer opportunities to learn how to develop and handle an intimate relationship that, in turn, could undermine their capacity to become involved in a committed romantic relationship in the future (Vasilenko et al., 2016). These individuals probably also become accustomed to being single or seeing the benefits of this status. While these studies are informative about the possible continuity between earlier romantic and sexual experiences and future relational outcomes, they explain less clearly how and why these associations arise.

Taking a developmental approach, Vasilenko et al. (2014) suggest viewing sexual behaviors as a series of life events, similar to the way in which romantic relationships are perceived, and to examine their role in the development of future relationships. They suggest that it is the way a (sexual) event is perceived and interpreted, or what it might mean for an individual, that affects the nature of its impact. Therefore, sexual experiences, similar to romantic experiences, could also be perceived as an important series of transitional experiences and, as such, may serve as a model for interaction with a sexual and/or romantic partner in the future (Vasilenko et al., 2014).

Though casual sex can be considered a pattern of interaction between two partners (Vasilenko et al., 2014), it lacks the characteristics of a relationship and. It might rather focus on the gratification of self-desires. In addition, casual “sexual encounters” are less likely to be discussed or negotiated, as individuals often do not know the potential sexual partner well and may be looking for sexual pleasure (Paul et al., 2008). James-Kangal and Whitton (2019) described that emerging adults in casual encounters rarely engaged in constructive discussions about problems in these “non-relationship” patterns, as casual encounters lack relationship rules and clarity regarding possible commitment. Even participants in “friend with benefits” encounters described that they did not feel confident raising their concerns, and felt that raising problems could lead to the expression of negative emotions and conflict. Therefore, casual sex partners preferred to refrain from discussing this “relationship” (Knight, 2014).

Findings underscore the possibility that the increasingly ambiguous nature of young adult relationships might interfere with the acquisition of healthy relationship management. This is likely to hamper one’s capabilities and trust while interacting with a partner in the future, and lead to an increasing sense of uncertainty (Halpern-Meekin et al., 2013). In addition, casual sex serves less as a model for learning how to address and handle relationships and, therefore, leads to more interaction difficulties in the future (Longmore et al., 2016), particularly a lack of trust and care (Higgins et al., 2010; Vasilenko et al., 2012). Considered together, it might be suggested that involvement in casual sex, contrary to involvement in a romantic relationship (Collins, 2003; Furman & Collibee, 2014), might become a negative model for future close and secure intimate relationships, with less confidence in future relationships and lower capacity to solve conflicts and handle a romantic relationship.

Earlier studies assessed the frequency of involvement in CSREs at one point in time. However, the frequency of involvement in CSREs might change over time. Rossi et al. (2019) showed that the number of annual sexual partners between the ages of 16 and 22 was either stable or increased over time, while during the latter part of the twenties, progress toward romantic stabilization was seen. For example, by age 30 a substantial number of young people marry (US Census, 2017) or cohabit (Guzzo, 2014). Conceptually, it might be suggested that while at the earlier stages of emerging adulthood, involvement in casual sex has become a frequent phenomenon among young people (Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013; Rossi et al., 2019), in the latter years, the frequency of casual sex can be expected to decrease (Guzzo, 2014). Following emerging adults for a period of 6 years, Shulman et al. (2018) showed an increasing tendency to become involved in stable romantic relationships over the years among the majority of their participants.

Taking a developmental perspective, we suggest that the frequency of CSREs changes over time. In line with this understanding, we further suggest that in addition to assessing the effect of earlier frequency of engagement in CSREs on future relationship outcomes, it is also important to assess the change of frequency of involvement in CSREs and its possible effect on future relationships. An increase in the frequency of CSREs over time might indicate that this pattern of behavior has stabilized. Continued and increasing involvement in casual sex implies that an individual has fewer opportunities to learn how to address a romantic relationship and develop intimacy over time. In addition, this increase in involvement in casual sex over time might also undermine the capacity to progress toward settling down in more exclusive and committed partnerships. Finally, it is likely that an increase in the frequency of casual sex will associate with less adaptive relationship outcomes, above and beyond the effect of the earlier level of engagement in casual sex. The current study examines the study questions in an Israeli sample. Israel is a developed, industrialized, Western culture that emphasizes individualistic values and education (Schwartz, 1994), and almost 60% of young people attend college. Yet, in addition to the emphasis on personal development, there are cultural expectations for young people to settle down in a successful career and start a family (Mayseless et al., 2003). Indeed, statistics suggest that the postponement of marriage is similar to that in other industrialized countries (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2015).

Young Israelis live an open and Western lifestyle that accepts sexual behavior among youth, while expecting them to settle down and establish a family when approaching their thirties. Indeed, a review of trends in sexual behavior among Israeli adolescents suggests that cultural legitimacy and meaning of sexual behavior have changed in the last two decades, and resulted in adolescents having accelerated sexual timetables (Shtarkshall et al., 2009). Relatedly, in a recent study, Shulman et al. (2018) showed that about two-thirds of emerging adults reported involvement in casual and non-stable romantic relationships in their twenties. Thus, the prevalence of CSREs among Israeli emerging adults is similar to that found in other Western cultures. Of note, the study was conducted on Jewish emerging adults. About 20% of the Israeli population is Moslem. Moslem emerging adults have more traditional values and, therefore, were not included in the current study.

The Present Study

Assuming a developmental perspective, the current study suggests that engagement in CSREs should be perceived as a pattern of interaction between two partners (Vasilenko et al., 2014). Guided by, and extending the attachment theory, Furman and Collibee (2014, 2018) outlined the Behavioral systems theory, contending that experiences in close relationships, such as peer or romantic relationships, are internalized and influence one’s approach to intimacy and closeness in future relationships. Furman and Collibee (2018) further suggested that sexual systems also operate according to this dynamic, as they involve intimacy and closeness. As discussed above, partners in casual sexual encounters do not feel confident in their interactions, and are afraid to express their true feelings (Knight, 2014). Thus, guided by the attachment theory and Furman and Collibee’s (2018) Behavioral systems theory, earlier CSRE experiences characterized by low confidence and a tendency to maintain distance from one’s partner are likely to be internalized and carried forward into future relationships. This internalized representation is less likely to serve as a model for a confident and secure relationship, but rather as a model for a relationship recalling the avoidant attachment behavior.

The mechanism that earlier CSREs associate with future behavior can also be explained by the social learning theory. The social learning theory suggests that patterns of interactions in the family of origin contribute to developing the same patterns of behavior in future romantic relationships (Cui et al., 2010). Partners in CSRE encounters rarely engage in constructive discussions about problems, as casual encounters lack relationship rules (James-Kangal & Whitton, 2019) and cannot serve as a learning arena for managing relationships. Thus, we first hypothesize that greater earlier engagement in casual sex would potentially associate with a lower sense of relationship security, and a greater tendency to maintain distance from a partner and display higher concealment from a partner. We further hypothesize that participants in CSREs will exhibit lesser competence in handling a relationship in the future, expressed by a lower capacity to solve problems and a higher tendency to downplay disagreements. Most young people’s developmental pathways show an increasing penchant towards greater exclusivity when approaching the later twenties, and the frequency of engagement in casual sex can be expected to decrease over time. Therefore, we secondly hypothesize that increased engagement in casual sex over time could become a stable pattern of behavior and, consequently, will associate with a lesser capacity to feel secure and handle a relationship in the future. In contrast, decreased engagement in casual sex over time is likely associate with a higher capacity to handle relationships competently and feel secure in one’s relationships.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Participants are part of a broader longitudinal project on the development of romantic and sexual relationships among adolescents and emerging adults in Israel. Eleventh (11^th) and 12^th-grade adolescents were recruited from three schools in the center and north of Israel to include adolescents from the Tel Aviv metro area and adolescents living in the periphery. All participants were Jewish and were followed into emerging adulthood. In the current report, we refer to data collected at age 23, age 25, and age 28. The age 23 assessment included 110 participants (69 females, 41 males, Mean age = 22.79 years, SD = .86). At age 25, the sample comprised 102 participants (68 females, 34 males, Mean age = 24.74 years, SD = 0.71). At age 28, the sample comprised 100 participants (66 females, 34 males, Mean age = 27.44 years, SD = 0.75). At the age 28 assessment, two men and one woman identified themselves as homosexuals. Eighty-one (81) of the 100 participants at age 28 reported belonging to an intact family, and 19 to a divorced family. There were no differences in any of the demographic variables on the personality measure between those who participated in the age 23 assessment and those who later dropped out. All participants were from middle-class families. Fathers’ and mothers' mean years of schooling were 15.37 years (SD = 2.59) and 15.58 years (SD = 3.40), respectively. At age 28, 80 participants (of the 100) reported current involvement in a romantic relationship.

Participants were compensated at each assessment with a sum of 100 NIS (about $30.00). All procedures were approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board (Psychology; ID # 2020/79).

Measures

Involvement in casual sex; Assessed at ages 23, 25, and 28

Participants were asked to report the number of sex partners of two types they had in the two last years: casual partners such as friends-with-benefits (partners they interacted with sexually more than once but did not consider a romantic relationship); and one-time partners – casual sex (i.e., partners with whom they interacted sexually only once). For this study, following the suggestion of Claxton and van Dulmen (2013) that the two patterns of casual sex are not conceptually different, reports on involvement in sex with one-time partners or with a friend-with-benefits were combined into one variable assessing the number of CSRE partners during the past 2 years. Together, the range of involvement in CSREs in the last 2 years was as follows: 0 – never; 1 -1-2; 3- 3-5; 4- 5 to 10; 5 - 11 and above.

Age 28 Assessment

Secure and avoidant romantic attachment

Participants completed a shortened version of the Experiences in Close Relationships survey (ECR; Brennan et al., 1998), with responses ranked on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In their answers, respondents were instructed to refer to the romantic relationship in which they were currently involved or were involved during the previous year. In the current study, we used the subscales of security and avoidance (seven items each) to assess the extent to which a participant was comfortable sharing personal issues with a partner (e.g., “I do not mind asking my partner for advice or help”) or (e.g., “I feel uncomfortable when my partner wants to get closer to me”). Internal consistencies for the security and avoidance subscales were .89 and .87, respectively.

Relationship certainty

The measure for certainty was adapted from Kellermann and Reynolds (1990). This scale consists of nine items that measure the general confidence of one of a couple in predicting his or her partner’s current interest in, and future vision for, the relationship (e.g., “How confident are you of your partner’s interest in this relationship?”; “How confident are you in the future progress of this relationship?”). Items were rated on a scale from 1 (not confident) to 5 (highly confident). Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .91. Participants reported on their current or last relationship in which they were involved.

Concealment

This scale consists of five items assessing self-concealment from one’s partner (Larson & Chastain, 1990). Participants rated items such as “There are lots of things about me that I keep from my romantic partner” and “I’m often afraid I’ll reveal something to my romantic partner that I don’t want to” on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale. Cronbach’s alpha was .91. Participants reported on their current relationship or the last relationship in which they were involved.

Problem-solving and downplaying disagreements

Three items (on a scale from 1 – not at all to 10 – very correct) assessed levels of the capacity to handle disagreement in their current or most recent relationship (e.g., “We discussed the issue and were able to calm down”; “We discussed the disagreement and were able to solve it”). An additional three items assessed the tendency to overlook or disregard disagreements (on a scale from 1 – never to 10 – quite often) in their current or most recent relationship (e.g., “We went on as if nothing happened”; We agreed that this was not an important issue to fight over”). Cronbach’s alpha for the two scales was .85 and .80, respectively.

Plan of Analysis

Missing data accounted for an average of 9.4% of reports for the variables included in this study. Missing data were handled with full information maximum-likelihood estimation (FIML), which allowed participants with incomplete data to be included in the models. Little’s test indicated that data were missing randomly, χ²(390) = 558.40, p = .06.

A series of regression analyses were conducted to assess predictors of relationship quality (secure romantic attachment, avoidant romantic attachment, sense of certainty, and self-concealment from partner), the capacity to handle disagreements (problem-solving and downplaying of disagreements), and indices of romantic capacities at the age of 28. Gender was entered in the first step to control for the possible effect of gender. Considering that belonging to an intact or divorced family might affect the offspring’s capacity for romantic encounters, parents’ marital status was entered as a control variable in the second step. The level of involvement in casual sex at age 23 was entered in the third step. To assess the change in the level of involvement in casual sex between the ages 23, 25, and 28, the personal change score in casual sex throughout the three measurements was calculated for each subject, using a two-level hierarchical linear model with random intercept and random slope. The repeated measurements were nested within the subject level. The random slope was extracted from the model as a change score. The mixed effects analyses were done using the nlme package with the Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) Estimation method (Pinheiro et al., 2018) in R software version 4.2.1.

The calculated change in frequency of involvement in CSREs – the slope - was incorporated into the data and was entered in the fourth step. A higher level of change indicates increased involvement in CSREs across the 5 years. Considering that being or not being in a romantic relationship at the age of 28 assessment might affect the perception of the quality of a relationship, the current romantic status at age 28 was entered as a control variable. Finally, considering possible gender differences in the association between involvement in CSREs and future romantic behavior, the interaction between gender and CSREs at age 23, and between gender and CSRE slopes were entered in the last step.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 presents the correlations between indices of the number of casual sex partners at age 23, their slope, relationship quality (secure romantic attachment, avoidant romantic attachment, sense of certainty and concealment), and the capacity to handle disagreements (problem-solving and downplaying) at the age of 28. As can be seen, the number of CSRE partners at age 23 is associated only with a lower capacity to resolve disagreements and a higher tendency to downplay disagreements at age 28. However, an increase in the number of casual sex partners (slope) between age 23 and age 28 is associated with greater avoidant romantic attachment, a lower sense of certainty, a higher tendency to conceal from one’s romantic partner, and a lower capacity to solve disagreements and to downplay disagreements.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlations for study variables.

Variable	N	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. CSREs 23	106	1.54	.87
2. CSREs slope	106	.08	.10	.35**
3. Secure attachment	101	8.6	1.8	−.08	−.19
4. Avoidant attachment	100	1.9	1.15	−.11	.26**	−.51**
5. Relationship certainty	82	5.75	.79	0	−.31**	.27*	−.39**
6. Concealment	101	1.55	.96	.08	.29**	−.24*	.59**	−.38**
7. Problem solving capacity	82	7.26	3.17	.25	−.25*	.20	−.19	.20	−.03
8. Downplaying disagreements	74	3.13	2.95	−.09	.29*	−.20	.29*	−.13	.37**	−.54**

Note. *p < .05. **p < .01.

Predicting quality of romantic relationships and frequency of casual sex at age 28

Six sets of hierarchical regressions were conducted to determine predictors of the quality of romantic relationships at age 28. As can be seen in Table 2, the level of involvement in CSREs at age 23 is associated only with a lower capacity to resolve disagreements at the age of 28. However, an increase in the level of engagement in casual sex between the age of 23 and 28 (the slope) was significantly associated with future relationship outcomes. A greater increase in the level of engagement in casual sex is associated with a future higher level of romantic avoidant attachment and concealment, and a lower level of certainty in one’s relationships. In addition, an increase in the level of engagement in casual sex is associated marginally with a lower capacity to solve disagreements (at the p = .052 level). Of note, the effect of an increase in the level of engagement in casual sex over the years is associated with the quality of future romantic relationships above and beyond the contribution of being currently (at age 28) involved in a romantic relationship. No significant interactions between gender and CSREs at age 23, and between gender and CSREs’ slope were found and, therefore, these are not presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Predicting the quality of romantic relationships at age 28.

Independent variables	Secure attachment	Avoidant attachment	Relationship certainty	Concealment	Problem-solving capacity	Downplaying disagreements
Step 1
Gender	.16†	−.12	.08	−.18*	.04	−.10
R²	.03	.02	.01	.03	0	.01
F	3.72†	2.17	.84	4.46*	.17	1.62
Step 2
Gender	.16†	−.12	.08	−.18*	.04	−.10
Parents’ marital status	−.02	.02	−.07	−.1	−.04	−.11
R²	.03	.02	.01	.04	0	.02
∆R²	0	0	0	.10	0	.01
∆F	.04	.03	.67	.96	.22	1.7
Step 3
Gender	.15†	−.09	.08	−.15†	.01	−.01
Parents’ marital status	−.02	.02	−.07	−.08	−.04	−.11
CRS	.10	−.25**	0	−.20*	.20*	−.29**
R²	.04	.08	.01	.08	.04	.10
∆R²	.01	.06	0	.04	.04	.08
∆F	1.67	9.23**	0	5.8*	5.90*	12.49***
Step 4
Gender	.15†	−.10	.08	−.15†	.03	−.10
Parents’ marital status	−.02	.01	−.07	−.08	−.03	−.12
CRS	.11	−.27**	0	−.20*	.23**	−.30**
CSREs 23	.02	−.14†	.01	−.01	.14	−.12
R²	.04	.10	.01	.08	.06	.12
∆R²	0	.02	0	0	.02	.01
∆F	.05	2.92†	.02	0	2.66	1.94
Step 5
Gender	.12	−.07	.03	−.10	−.01	−.05
Parents’ marital status	−.02	.02	−.08	−.07	−.04	−.10
CRS	.07	−.21*	−.08	−.14	.17†	−.26**
CSREs 23	.05	−.19*	.07	−.05	.18*	−.15†
CSREs slope	−.13	.20*	−.26**	.20*	−.19†	.14
R²	.05	.13	.06	.11	.09	.13
∆R²	.01	.03	.05	.03	.03	.01
∆F	1.81	4.89*	7.63**	4.57*	3.85†	2.24

†p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

CRS - Current romantic status; CSREs 23 - CSREs at age 23.

Considered together, the level of earlier engagement in casual sex (CSREs) is associated only with a lower future capacity to resolve problems. However, an increase in the number of CSRE partners was a stronger predictor of lower quality of future relationship outcomes.

Discussion

Studies conceptualized within a developmental framework have shown that earlier experiences in romantic relationships are carried forward into future relationships (Furman & Collibee, 2014; Madsen & Collins, 2011). Assuming a developmental perspective, Vasilenko et al. (2014) suggest that earlier sexual encounters could also become a model for future behavior. Considering the non-relationship quality of casual engagements (James-Kangal & Whitton, 2019), it was expected that earlier engagement in casual sex would associate with lower quality of future relationships and a lower capacity to handle future relationships (Furman & Collibee, 2014). However, contrary to the study assumptions, earlier engagement in casual sex at age 23 was associated only with one index of the quality of future romantic relationships at age 28 – the lower capacity to resolve disagreements. In contrast, an increase in the frequency of engagement in casual sex between the ages of 23 and 28 is consistently associated with future outcomes. It is associated with a future higher sense of avoidant romantic attachment, lower certainty in one’s relationships, and concealment from one’s partner at age 25.

Conceptually, these findings seem to align with previous research suggesting that earlier repeated patterns of behavior in romantic, as well as in sexual relationships are carried forward into future relationships (Furman & Winkles, 2012; Madsen & Collins, 2011; Seiffge-Krenke, 2003). However, it is unclear why the increase in the frequency of engaging in CSREs better explained future relationship outcomes than the earlier level of engagement in CSREs.

It could be suggested that casual sex in the earlier years of emerging adulthood serves as an exploration of the sexual domain and appears to be developmentally appropriate. Furthermore, Illouz, (2018) suggested that casual sex experiences (events) often lack the expectation for future outcomes and, therefore, such an event is less likely to be incorporated into a person’s sense of continuity and life history. However, the prolongation and increase of CSREs over time are likely to evolve into an internalized “script” of non-committed romantic relationships that could become a development-inhibiting model, in particular when this continues over an extended period of time (Olmstead et al., 2019).

It is important to understand the mechanisms that could explain the carryover of the patterns associated with earlier casual sexual behavior. Previous theory and research, conceptualized within the framework of attachment theory, claimed that behavior patterns are internalized, and the internalized model is carried forward and enacted in future relationships (Furman & Collibee, 2014; Shulman & Collins, 1997). Thus, once involvement in CSREs is repeated over time, this pattern of sexual and non-relationship behavior is “internalized” and carried forward into the future. As detailed earlier, the strong self-focus and orientation on personal pleasure might turn into an internalized model that ignores the partner and the concern for the quality of relationships. This is not conducive to learning processes that promote communication behavior and conflict resolution in a couple’s relationship.

This distinction between earlier experiences in casual sex per se, and repeated engagement in casual sex that has evolved into a pattern not conducive to development, aligns with a previous study by Shulman et al. (2018). Examining the romantic and sexual history of emerging adults between the ages of 23 and 29, Shulman et al. identified a number of romantic and sexual pathways, two of which are relevant to this discussion. The first captures a pattern of engagement in casual encounters during the years of emerging adulthood, while the second, termed from casual to steady, included individuals who were involved in casual encounters in the earlier years and then progressed into stable relationships. Importantly, while the casual pattern was associated with less adaptive future outcomes, the casual to the steady pattern was associated with adaptive outcomes similar to those of emerging adults who were involved mostly in steady relationships over the years.

Engagement in CSREs has become quite common among young adults and, in particular, among college students (Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013; Owen et al., 2011; Twenge et al., 2015), close to 70% of whom reported some casual sex experience (Garcia & Reiber, 2008; Gute & Eshbaugh, 2008; James-Kangal & Whitton, 2019). Engagement in CSREs during a period of time when investment in a romantic relationship has deliberately been postponed due to investment in a career (Shulman & Connolly, 2013), or during periods when an individual is “between” relationships, do not necessarily evolve into a pattern of behavior to be carried forward (Illouz, 2018). Shulman et al. (2018) further showed that engagement in casual sex might also be beneficial when it has not become a stable pattern. The stories told by the young people belonging to the casual to steady pattern indicated that past involvements in casual encounters could potentially serve as an arena for learning how to interact (or not to interact), and hence solidify a future close romantic relationship. In contrast, those repeatedly involved in casual encounters could not describe a learning experience from their variety of casual experiences. On the contrary, some stories revealed that ththey were still preoccupied with their past casual experiences, preventing them from moving toward a different and more flexible romantic attitude. This suggestion recalls an earlier study by Longmore et al. (2016), showing that a stable pattern of sexual non-exclusivity among 18-19 year-olds predicted lower satisfaction and increased partner aggression at age 22.

Sexual desire is conceptualized to motivate the attachment bonding process and lead to meaningful joint experiences (Birenbaum, 2010). Additionally, sexual desire makes people more inclined to employ strategies to become closer to a potential new partner, or maintain a relationship with a current partner (Meston & Buss, 2007). Considering the findings of the current study, sexuality might operate differently in a casual sexual engagement that takes place from time to time, compared to when casual sex has become a more stable pattern of behavior and even increases over time. Emerging adults describe that they are too busy for commitment (Lyons et al., 2014; Shulman & Connolly, 2013), and, therefore, their casual sex encounters are more aimed at immediate pleasure. As such, they might not consider these sexual behaviors as events from a life course perspective (Illouz, 2018) and, therefore, do not affect the romantic views of an individual, as was found in the current study (Vasilenko et al., 2014). In contrast, once casual sex has become a stable pattern (and increases over time), it may be deliberately not aimed at building a relationship (Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013). The pattern of keeping an emotional distance from a sexual partner and refraining from discussions, may solidify a relational pattern carried forward into future interactions and associated with lower intimacy and relationship quality.

In sum, the meaning and, consequently, the possible future effects of sexual encounters are probably different when casual sex occurs once or during a limited period, or when casual sex becomes a stable and repeated pattern that increases over time. When casual sex is not a stable or repeated pattern of behavior, it might even serve as an arena for learning how to interact with a partner (Shulman et al., 2018), or give rise to meaningful joint experiences (Birenbaum, 2010). As such, casual encounters from time to time among emerging adults might be perceived as part of the process of exploring sexuality and learning to interact with a romantic and sexual partner. However, when involvement in casual sex becomes a repeated pattern of behavior, searching mostly for sexual pleasure (and less intimacy), this pattern is likely to stabilize and be (re-)enacted in the future and adversely affect the quality of a future relationship. Considered together, a consistent pursuit of casual sex over a longer period of time might stabilize and interfere with the development of future close and intimate relationships.

Several caveats of the current sample must be noted. First, this study is based on self-reports, and the sample is relatively small. Information from additional sources or measures, such as daily diaries of romantic and sexual encounters, might enrich our data and provide an additional perspective. Participant evaluations of sexual experiences, as well as a history of sexual assault, might affect the quality of future relationships. The findings of the current study seem to suggest that an increase in involvement in casual sex is associated with a future lower capacity to handle relationships. However, it might be possible that earlier difficulties in managing romantic relationships, experienced prior to the first assessment in the current study, might lead to increased involvement in casual sex at the first assessment at age 23. In addition, although participants were recruited from both the center of the country and the periphery, this sample is not nationally representative. We ruled out the possible impact of parental marital status. Yet, parental marital discord might have influenced the offspring’s capacity to handle a romantic relationship. Finally, this sample included Israeli youth. Israel is a Western culture, and research has shown that the romantic and sexual timetables among Israeli adolescents (Shulman & Scharf, 2000), as well as engagement in casual sex (Shulman et al., 2018), resemble those in the US (Carver et al., 2003). Despite these similarities, establishing a family and becoming a parent are highly valued in Israeli culture (Schwartz, 1994). Therefore, it is important to replicate our findings in a different culture and, in particular, in more individualistic cultures to better evaluate the generalizability of the current findings.

Conclusions

Examining CSREs from a developmental perspective showed, contrary to our expectations, that earlier casual encounters at age 23 minimally predict the quality of future relationship outcomes 5 years later. However, assessing the frequency of involvement in casual sex again at ages 25 and 28 showed that increased involvement in CSREs over the years was significantly associated with future less adaptive relationship outcomes. This is associated with feeling more avoidant in future relationships, an increased tendency to conceal from one’s partner, and reporting less certainty in future relationships. It is suggested that events of engagement in CSREs often lack expectations for the future and, therefore, are less likely to affect future behavior. Furthermore, when engaging in casual sex is repeated and increases over time, it might become a stable relational pattern that is carried forward into future relationships. Thus, while engagement in casual sex might be common among emerging adults and not necessarily associated with future relationship outcomes, when engagement in casual sex is repeated and increases over time, it might become a more stable behavior that is then likely to have an adverse effect on future competence in handling a romantic relationship.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by the IsraReli Ministry of Health - Grant # 6412/12 and The Ben Dov Chair in Youth Psychology given to Shmuel Shulman.

Open research statement

This research was/was not pre-registered. The data used in the research cannot be publicly shared but are available upon request. The data can be obtained at: Shmuel.shulman@biu.ac.il. The materials used in the research are available upon The materials can be obtained at: Shmuel.shulman@biu.ac.il.

ORCID iDs

Shmuel Shulman

Refael Yonatan-Leus

References

Anders

K. M.

Goodcase

Yazedjian

Toews

M. L.

(2020). “Sex is Easier to Get and Love is Harder to Find”: Costs and rewards of hooking up among first-year college students. Journal of Sex Research, 57(2), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1667946

Barriger

Vélez-Blasini

C. J.

(2013). Descriptive and injunctive social norm overestimation in hooking up and their role as predictors of hook-up activity in a college student sample. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.607928

Birnbaum

G. E.

(2010). Bound to interact: The divergent goals and complex interplay of attachment and sex within romantic relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(2), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407509360902

Bisson

M. A.

Levine

T. R.

(2009). Negotiating a friends with benefits relationship. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(1), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9211-2

Boisvert

Poulin

(2016). Navigating in and out of romantic relationships from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 5(3), 216–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696816675092

Brennan

K. A.

Clark

C. L.

Shaver

P. R.

(1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In Simpson

J. A.

Rholes

W. S.

(Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). Guilford.

Carver

Joyner

Udry

J. R.

(2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In Florsheim

(Ed.), Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (17, pp. 23–56). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410607782-8

Claxton

S. E.

van Dulmen

M. H. M.

(2013). Casual sexual relationships and experiences in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813487181

Collins

W. A.

(2003). More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(1), 1–24. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1111/1532-7795.1301001

10.

Cui

Durtschi

J. A.

Donnellan

M. B.

Lorenz

F. O.

Conger

R. D.

(2010). Intergenerational transmission of relationship aggression: A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 24(6), 688–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021675

11.

Epstein

Calzo

J. P.

Smiler

A. P.

Ward

L. M.

(2009). “Anything from making out to having sex”: Men's negotiations of hooking up and friends with benefits scripts. Journal of Sex Research, 46(5), 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490902775801

12.

Furman

Collibee

(2014). Sexual activity with romantic and nonromantic partners and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(7), 1327–1341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0293-3

13.

Furman

Collibee

(2018). The past is present: Representations of parents, friends, and romantic partners predict subsequent romantic representations. Child Development, 89(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12712

14.

Furman

Winkles

J. K.

(2012). Transformations in heterosexual romantic relationships across the transition into adulthood. In Laursen

Collins

W. A.

(Eds.), Relationship pathways: From adolescence to young adulthood (pp. 191–213). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452240565.n8

15.

Garcia

J. R.

Reiber

(2008). Hook-up behavior: A biopsychosocial perspective. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2(4), 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099345

16.

Gute

Eshbaugh

E. M.

(2008). Personality as a predictor of hooking up among college students. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 25(1), 26–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370010701836385

17.

Guzzo

K. B.

(2014). Trends in cohabitation outcomes: Compositional changes and engagement among never-married young adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 76(4), 826–842. Portico https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12123

18.

Halpern-Meekin

Manning

W. D.

Giordano

P. C.

Longmore

M. A.

(2013). Relationship churning in emerging adulthood: On/off relationships and sex with an ex. Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(2), 166–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558412464524

19.

Higgins

J. A.

Trussell

Moore

N. B.

Davidson

J. K.

(2010). Virginity lost, satisfaction gained? Physiological and psychological sexual satisfaction at heterosexual debut. Journal of Sex Research, 47(4), 384–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224491003774792

20.

Hinde

R. A.

(1995). A suggested structure for a science of relationships. Personal Relationships, 2(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.1995.tb00074.x

21.

Hughes

Morrison

Asada

K. J. K.

(2005). What’s love got to do with it? Exploring the impact of maintenance rules, love attitudes, and network support on friends with benefits relationships. Western Journal of Communication, 69(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570310500034154

22.

Illouz

(2018). The End of Love: A Sociology of Negative Relations. Padstow, Cornwall: TJ Books.

23.

Israel Central Bureau of Statistics . (2015). The relationship between educationand successful marriage. In Central Bureau of Statistics. Jerusalem: The Chief Scientist Department.

24.

James-Kangal

Whitton

S. W.

(2019). Conflict management in emerging adults' "Nonrelationships. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 8(2), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/cfp0000118

25.

Jonason

P. K.

N. P.

Richardson

(2011). Positioning the booty-call relationship on the spectrum of relationships: Sexual but more emotional than one-night stands. Journal of Sex Research, 48(5), 486–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2010.497984

26.

Kellermann

Reynolds

(1990). When ignorance is bliss the role of motivation to reduce uncertainty in uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 17(1), 5–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1990.tb00226.x

27.

Knight

(2014). Communicative dilemmas in emerging adults' friends with benefits relationships: Challenges to relational talk. Emerging Adulthood, 2(4), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696814549598

28.

Larson

D. G.

Chastain

R. L.

(1990). Self-concealment: Conceptualization, measurement, and health implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(4), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.4.439

29.

Longmore

M. A.

Manning

W. D.

Copp

J. E.

Giordano

P. C.

(2016). A prospective study of adolescents' sexual partnerships on emerging adults' relationship satisfaction and intimate partner aggression. Emerging Adulthood, 4(6), 403–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696816631098

30.

Lyons

H. A.

Manning

W. D.

Longmore

M. A.

Giordano

P. C.

(2014). Young adult casual sexual behavior: Life course specific motivations and consequences. Sociological Perspectives: SP: Official Publication of the Pacific Sociological Association, 57(1), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121413517557

31.

Madsen

S. D.

Collins

W. A.

(2011). The salience of adolescent romantic experiences for romantic relationship qualities in young adulthood. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(4), 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00737.x

32.

Mayseless

Scharf

Sholt

(2003). From authoritative parenting practices to an authoritarian context: Exploring the person-environment fit. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(4), 427–456. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1532-7795.2003.01304002.x

33.

Meston

C. M.

Buss

D. M.

(2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(4), 477–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2

34.

Olmstead

S. B.

Norona

J. C.

Anders

K. M.

(2019). How do college experience and sex differentiate the enactment of hook-up scripts among emerging adults? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(6), 1769–1783. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1233-4

35.

Owen

Fincham

F. D.

Moore

(2011). Short-term prospective study of hooking up among college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9697-x

36.

Paul

E. L.

Wenzel

Harvey

(2008). Hook-ups: A facilitator or a barrier to relationship initiation and intimacy development. In Sprecher

Wenzel

Harvey

(Eds.), Handbook of relationship initiation (pp. 375–390). Psychology press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429020513-30

37.

Pinheiro

Bates

DebRoy

Sarkar

R Core

Team

(2018). nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. R Package Version, 3, 1–137. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlme

38.

Raley

R. K.

Crissey

Muller

(2007). Of Sex and Romance: Late Adolescent Relationships and Young Adult Union Formation. Journal of marriage and the family, 69(5), 1210–1226. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00442.x

39.

Rauer

A. J.

Pettit

G. S.

Lansford

J. E.

Bates

J. E.

Dodge

K. A.

(2013). Romantic relationship patterns in young adulthood and their developmental antecedents. Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2159–2171. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031845

40.

Rossi

Poulin

Boislard

M.-A.

(2019). Sexual trajectories during adolescence and adjustment in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 9(4), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696819893550

41.

Sato

Iwasawa

(2015). The sexual behavior of adolescents and young adults in Japan. In Ogawa

Shah

I. H.

(Eds.), Low fertility and reproductive health in East Asia (pp. 137–159). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9226-4_8

42.

Schwartz

S. H.

(1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In Kim

Triandis

H. C.

Kagitcibasi

Choi

S. C.

Yoon

(Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Sage.

43.

Seiffge-Krenke

(2003). Testing theories of romantic development from adolescence to young adulthood: Evidence of a developmental sequence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(6), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000145

44.

Shtarkshall

R. A.

Carmel

Jaffe-Hirschfield

Woloski-Wruble

(2009). Sexual milestones and factors associated with coitus initiation among Israeli high school students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(4), 591–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9418-x

45.

Shulman

Collins

(1997). Romantic relationships in adolescence: Developmental perspectives. Jossey-Bass.

46.

Shulman

Connolly

(2013). The challenge of romantic relationships in emerging adulthood: Reconceptualization of the field. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812467330

47.

Shulman

Scharf

(2000). Adolescent romantic behaviors and perceptions: Age-and gender-related differences, and links with family and peer relationships. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.1207/sjra1001_5

48.

Shulman

Seiffge-Krenke

Scharf

Boiangiu

S. B.

Tregubenko

(2018). The diversity of romantic pathways during emerging adulthood and their developmental antecedents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(2), 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416673474

49.

Twenge

J. M.

Sherman

R. A.

Wells

B. E.

(2015). Changes in American adults' sexual behavior and attitudes, 1972–2012. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(8), 2273–2285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0540-2

50.

U.S Census Bureau . (2017). Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

51.

Vasilenko

S. A.

Kugler

K. C.

Lanza

S. T.

(2016). Latent classes of adolescent sexual and romantic relationship experiences: Implications for adult sexual health and relationship outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 53(7), 742–753. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1065952

52.

Vasilenko

S. A.

Lefkowitz

E. S.

Welsh

D. P.

(2014). Is sexual behavior healthy for adolescents? A conceptual framework for research on adolescent sexual behavior and physical, mental, and social health. In Lefkowitz

E. S.

Vasilenko

S. A.

(Eds.), Positive and negative outcomes of sexual behaviors: New directions for child and adolescent development (144, pp. 3–19). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20057

53.

Vasilenko

S. A.

Lefkowitz

E. S.

Maggs

J. L.

(2012). Short-term positive and negative consequences of sex based on daily reports among college students. Journal of Sex Research, 49(6), 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.589101