Abstract
This book presents the most updated version of the theory of language proficiency called the Basic Language Cognition (BLC)-Higher Language Cognition (HLC) Theory on which the author Jan Hulstijn has been working for many years in the context of language acquisition and bilingualism. The book comprises two major sections: an introduction to the theory and a review of studies on language proficiency components in language development and bilingualisms.
Chapters 1 and 2 provide background information on the new theory before introducing it in the subsequent chapters. In Chapter 1, the author claims that the theory he presents is based on critical rationalism, an epistemological philosophy advanced by Popper (1959). According to critical rationalism, a field of study is defined by the phenomena it tries to explain through theory construction and empirical research. Therefore, Hulstijn expresses his intention to “empiricize” the concept of language proficiency and language acquisition as a whole, based on a number of empirical studies he conducted together with his colleagues. Chapter 2 poses fundamental questions concerning language acquisition, learning mechanisms, differences between first and second language acquisition (SLA), and individual differences. This is followed by the introduction of the two major language acquisition theories proposed by the generative school, which regards language acquisition as an innate ability (Chomsky, 1976), and the usage-based school, which claims structures emerge from use (Ellis, 2008), with the author’s intention to situate the theory presented in the book in the usage-based model.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5 contain detailed explanations of the new theory – BLC–HLC theory – with a different focus for each chapter: native speakers (Chapter 3), non-native speakers (Chapter 4), and summary of the theory (Chapter 5). In these chapters, the author explains how the term “language proficiency” was used in his earlier work and clarifies that this term has been operationalized in the educational measurement field as a scale or a continuum ranging from low to high. According to the author, however, language proficiency refers to a rather dichotomous construct uniting the two complementary dimensions of the proficiency, namely BLC and HLC. The term is also referred to as “language cognition” and “language ability” when the similarities and differences in both native speakers (referred to as “L1ers” in the book) and L2 learners (referred to as “L2ers”) are explained. The construct of language proficiency for both L1ers and L2ers is conceptualized in the two orthogonal dimensions: (1) BLC and HLC; and (2) core and peripheral components, including linguistic knowledge. While BLC is what L1ers have in common, HLC (also referred to as extended language cognition) is what makes individual differences. BLC is what all healthy native speakers possess regardless of their educational background, so it is restricted to only speech reception and production, whereas HLC is an extension of BLC. This framework was initially formulated to explain variations in language skills among adult L1ers and was later extended to L2ers.
The two dimensions of the proficiency are compared to the earlier dichotomies proposed, including restricted and elaborated codes (Berstein, 1972), basic communicative skills (BICS) and academic language proficiency (CALP) (e.g., Cummins, 1980), and analysis and control (Bialystok, 1982). While Berstein – a sociologist – was concerned with how language use is affected by social class and cultures of learners, BLC-HLC theory was formed to deal with issues in commonalities and differences in L1 acquisition, the age question, and individual differences in L2 attainment in the study of L2 development and bilingualism. Cummins’s BICS and CALP were addressed with the intention of solving students’ educational successes, but BLC-HLC theory was formed in order to understand individual differences in language ability. The most crucial difference from Bialystok’s analysis-control model lies in the purpose of the model: to address metalinguistic development in monolinguals and bilinguals.
Hulstijn claims that although BLC is not attainable to the L1ers’ level, late L2ers can become as proficient in HLC as L1ers of the same intellectual, educational, professional, and cultural profile, despite some deficiencies in their L2 BLC. A question remains, however: To what extent does a given L2er acquire BLC of the target language and HLC of an L1er with roughly the same profile? The chapter ends with discussions on answers to whether bilinguals reach native proficiency in both languages considering the four types of bilingual, based on the usage-based perspectives. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the discussion so far and presents some questions, followed by justifications.
In Chapter 6, Hulstijn first explains his initial attempt to review empirical studies on the commonalities that adult L1ers have in common in terms of knowledge or phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexis, in order to find evidence to support BLC-HLC theory. However, he did not find any literature on a study of this sort, and for that reason he reviewed literature on individual differences in the proficiency of understanding and speaking their L1 as a function of age and/or level of education, in which he found robust effects of age and level of education.
Chapter 7 presents the review of four studies investigating the componential nature of L2 proficiency. The first section presents methodological issues followed by a review of the nine studies, including those of the author and others. This review was motivated by the author’s attempt to provide empirical evidence of BLC-HLC.
Chapter 8 presents a discussion the relationship between L1 and L2 literacy skills in relation to the role of L1 literacy skills in the development of L2 literacy skills. After introducing a few influential theoretical models proposed by Clarke (1979), Alderson (1984), and Cummins (e.g., 1980), the author presents a review of the study based on the earlier models and concludes the chapter with a brief discussion in terms of the BLC-HLC perspective. Knowing the commonality of BLC among L1ers and individual differences manifested in HLC, the author suggests substantial correlations between L1 and L2 literacy skills.
Chapter 9 concerns the measurement of language proficiency in the context of SLA and bilingualism. Referring to the studies in bilingualism, Hulstijn stresses the role of language proficiency in the understanding of language processing in bilinguals, and also points out that the issue of language proficiency is largely neglected and taken for granted. He discusses the problems and difficulties in cross-linguistic comparisons – whether a given bilingual is equally proficient or not – and provides suggestions. In the final chapter, from the perspective of BLC-HLC theory, the author proposes to investigate which Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) proficiency levels are attainable.
The book provides an excellent introduction to a theory of language proficiency. The concepts of BLC and HLC discussed extensively in this book are accessible to teachers and non-academics, as well as graduate students and researchers. Although the BLC-HLC is well thought out and grounded in the author’s own research, he humbly accepts that it is not the endpoint of the theory, stating, “I hope that empirical research will bring about an early ‘expiration date’ of BLC-HLC Theory” (p. 158). On the whole, the book reads well with a comprehensive overview of the theories, definitions of key concepts, detailed explanations of the related models, and comparisons with earlier models. The author is very thorough in the description of his own theory, clarifying the differences from the earlier models proposed by other researchers and his own models that are based on his earlier work. In other words, he clearly positions the BLC-HLC theory in the current theoretical discussions on language acquisition. His careful attempt to guide the reader through the chapters toward his own theory indicates his scholarship, which he has devoted to the enquiry of unveiling native and non-native proficiency for many years.
As the theory presented here is largely born out of the author’s research context – bilingual acquisition – even though L2ers are well considered in the book, it is not clear how this might be relevant outside of the European context, in particular for learners who study a language that is typologically very different from their L1. Nevertheless, issues such as the components of language proficiency, the relationship between L1 and L2 literacy skills, and individual variations are all highly relevant to language testing researchers and practitioners. In particular, the section in the final chapter, in which the author poses some questions on whether CEFR levels are attainable based on the discussion of BLC-HLC theory, may be very useful for the language testing and assessment community.