The Social Representation of Entrepreneurs in the French Press

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to question the foundations and structure of entrepreneurs' social representation in the French press. Social representations are the result of a perceptive and cognitive construction of reality, which transforms social objects (people, contexts, situations) into symbolic categories (values, beliefs, ideologies), therefore providing a collective significant system for the regulation of cognitions and actions (Ljunggren and Alsos, 2001).Within the consensual reality through which the social world is created and experienced, the press can be emphasized as an entrepreneurial `Greek chorus' (Kets deVries, 2000) playing a key role in the diffusion and transformation of entrepreneurial culture at the local and national levels.We conducted a discourse analysis of 962 articles, from 2001 to 2005, in order to study the press's potential impact on entrepreneurial desirability and feasibility beliefs.We identified three main categories of discourses — the legitimacy discourse, the normativity discourse, and the accessibility discourse, which may impact readers' desirability and feasibility beliefs. This is the first attempt to assess the role of the public discourse in fuelling entrepreneurial intentions in the French context.

La représentation sociale des entrepreneurs dans la presse française Modèles souhaitables et réalistes ? Miruna Radu et Renaud Redien-Collot Advancia et Negocia, Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris, France Le but que se propose le présent article est de s'interroger sur les fondements et la structure de la représentation sociale des entrepreneurs dans la presse française. Les représentations sociales sont le fruit d'une construction perceptive et cognitive de la réalité, qui transforme les objets sociaux (personnes, contextes, situation) en des catégories symboliques (valeurs, croyances, idéologies), donnant ainsi lieu à un système collectif révélateur permettant la régulation des cognitions et actions (Ljunggren et Alsos, 2001). Dans le cadre de la réalité consensuelle, à travers laquelle se crée et se déroule le monde social, la presse peut apparaître comme un « chœur grec » (Kets de Vries, 2000) de l'esprit entrepreneurial, jouant un rôle clé dans la diffusion et la transformation de la culture entrepreneuriale au niveau aussi bien local que national. Nous avons analysé le discours de 962 articles, entre 2001 et 2005, en vue d'étudier l'éventuel impact que peut avoir la presse sur les croyances dans la convenance et la faisabilité entrepreneuriales. Nous avons identifié trois catégories principales de discours : le discours de légitimité, le discours de normativité et le discours d'accessibilité, susceptibles d'influencer les croyances dans la convenance et la faisabilité. Il s'agit là de la première tentative d'évaluation du rôle que joue le discours public dans son encouragement à soutenir les intentions entrepreneuriales au sein du contexte français.

La representación social de los emprendedores en la prensa francesa ¿Modelos convenientes y factibles? Miruna Radu y Renaud Redien-Collot Advancia — Negocia, Cámara de Comercio e Industrias de París, Francia El objetivo de este artículo es cuestionar los fundamentos y estructura de la representación social de los emprendedores en la prensa francesa. Las representaciones sociales son el resultado de una construcción perceptiva y cognitiva de la realidad que transforma los objetos sociales (gente, contextos, situaciones) en categorías simbólicas (valores, creencias, ideologías) y, por consiguiente, proporciona un importante sistema colectivo para la regulación de las cogniciones y acciones (Ljunggren y Alsos, 2001). Dentro de la realidad consensual a través de la cual el mundo social es creado y experimentado, la prensa puede destacarse como un `coro griego' del espíritu empresarial (Kets de Vries, 2000) jugando un papel decisivo en la difusión y transformación de la cultura empresarial a nivel local y nacional. Llevamos a cabo un análisis del discurso de 962 artículos, desde 2001 hasta 2005, para estudiar el impacto potencial de la prensa sobre las creencias de la conveniencia y factibilidad del emprendedurismo. Identificamos tres categorías principales de discursos: el discurso de legitimidad, el discurso de normativa y el discurso de accesibilidad, que pueden impactar sobre las creencias de conveniencia y factibilidad que tienen los lectores. Éste es el primer intento de evaluar el papel del discurso público en estimular las intenciones empresariales en el contexto francés,

Die gesellschaftliche Repräsentation des Unternehmers in der französischen Presse Wünschenswerte und durchführbare Modelle? Miruna Radu und Renaud Redien-Collot Advancia — Negocia, Industrie- und Handelskammer Paris, Frankreich Ziel dieses Artikels ist die Hinterfragung der Grundprinzipien und der Struktur der gesellschaftlichen Repräsentation von Unternehmern in der französischen Presse. Gesellschaftliche Repräsentationen sind die Folge einer tief blickenden und kognitiven Auslegung der Realität, die soziale Objekte (Menschen, Zusammenhänge, Situationen) in symbolische Kategorien (Werte,Ansichten, Ideologien) einordnen, und damit ein bedeutendes, kollektives System für die Bestimmung von Ansichten und Handlungen schaffen (Ljunggren und Alsos, 2001). Innerhalb der auf gegenseitiger Zustimmung beruhenden Realität, durch die diese Gesellschaft geschaffen und erlebt wird, kann die Presse als ein unternehmerischer „Griechischer Chor” (Kets de Vries, 2000) beschrieben werden, der eine zentrale Rolle in der Streuung und Umgestaltung der unternehmerischen Kultur auf regionaler und nationaler Ebene spielt. Wir haben 962 Artikel zwischen 2001 und 2005 analysiert, um den potenziellen Einfluss der Presse auf unternehmerische Ansichten über Wünsche und Realisierbarkeit zu untersuchen. Wir identifizierten drei Diskurskategorien — den Legitimationsdiskurs, den Normativitätsdiskurs und den Diskurs zur Barrierefreiheit, die eine Auswirkung auf die Ansichten der Leser über Wünsche und Realisierbarkeit haben können. Dies ist der erste Versuch einer Untersuchung, auf welche Weise der öffentliche Diskurs in Frankreich unternehmerische Absichten beeinflusst.

Keywords

discourse entrepreneurship press social representation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abric, J.C. (1984) `A Theoretical and Experimental Approach to the Study of Social Representations in a Situation of Interaction', in R. Farr and S. Moscovici (eds) Social Representations, pp. 169-83. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Abric, J.C. (1994) Pratiques Sociales et Représentations [Social Practices and Representations]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Adoni, H. and Mane, S. (1984) `Media and the Social Construction of Reality: Toward an Integration of Theory and Research', Communication Research 11(3): 323-40.

Ajzen, I. (1985) `From Intentions to Actions: A Theory of Planned Behaviour', in J. Kuhl and J. Beckman (eds) Action-control: From Cognition to Behaviour, pp. 11-39. Heidelberg: Springer .

Ajzen, I. (1991) `The Theory of Planned Behaviour', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50(2): 179-211.

Alvesson, M. and Karreman, D. (2000) `Varieties of Discourse: On the Study of Organizations through Discourse Analysis', Human Relations 53(9): 1125-49.

Autio, E. , Keely, R.H. and Klofsten, M. (1997) `Entrepreneurial Intent Among Students: Testing an Intent Model in Asia, Scandinavia and USA', in Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, pp. 133-47. Babson Park, MA : Babson College.

Bandura, A. (1977) `Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change', Psychological Review 84(2): 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1986) The Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

10.

Bandura, A. (1992) `Exercise of Personal Agency through the Self-efficacy Mechanism', in R. Schwarzer (ed.) Self-efficacy: Thought Control of Action, pp. 3-38. Washington, DC : Hemisphere.

11.

Baron, R. (1998) `Cognitive Mechanisms in Entrepreneurship: Why and When Entrepreneurs Think Differently than Other People', Journal of Business Venturing 13(4): 275-94.

12.

Bell, A. and Garrett, P. (1997) Approaches to Media Discourse. Cambridge: Blackwell.

13.

Berger, P.L. and Luckman, T. (1971) The Social Construction of Reality. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

14.

Billig, M. (1993) `Studying the Thinking Society: Social Representations, Rhetoric, and Attitudes', in G. M. Breakwell and D. V. Canter (eds) Empirical Approaches to Social Representations, pp. 39-62. Oxford : Clarendon Press.

15.

Bird, B.J. (1992) `The Operation of Intentions in Time: The Emergence of the New Venture', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 17(1): 11-20.

16.

Bonnafous-Boucher, M. (2005) Anthropologie et Gestion [Anthropology and Management] . Paris: Economica.

17.

Bruner, J. (1985) Actual Minds and Possible Worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

18.

Bruner, J. (1991) `The Narrative Construction of Reality', Critical Inquiry 18(1): 1-21.

19.

Bruner, J. and Luciarello, J. (1989) `Monologues as a Narrative Recreation of the World' , in K. Nelson (ed.) Narratives from the Crib,pp. 234-308. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

20.

Caron, J. (1983) Les Régulations du Discours: Psycholinguistique et Pragmatique du Langage [A Psycholinguistics and Pragmatic Approach in Discourse Regulations]. Paris: PUF.

21.

Chabrol, C. (1988) `Le Lecteur: Fantôme ou Réalité?' [The Reader: Fiction or Reality?], in P. Charaudeau (ed.) La Presse Écrite [The Press], pp. 161-84. Paris: Didier Erudition.

22.

Chaiken, S. Liberman, A. and Eagly, A.H. (1989) `Heuristic and Systematic Information Processing Within and Beyond the Persuasion Context', in J. Uleman and J. A. Bargh (eds) Unintended Thoughts, pp. 212-52. New York: Guilford Press.

23.

Cope, J. (2005) `Researching Entrepreneurship through Phenomenological Inquiry', International Small Business Journal 23(2): 163-89.

24.

Critto, A. (1999) Choosing Models of Society and Social Norms: Improving Choices and Quality of Life. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

25.

Deephouse, D.L. (2000) `Media Reputation as a Strategic Resource: An Integration of Mass Communication and Resource-based Theories', Journal of Management 26(6): 1091-112.

26.

De Rosa, A.S. (1994) `From Theory to Metatheory in Social Representations: The Lines of Argument of a Theoretical-methodological Debate' 33(2): 273-304.

27.

Derrida, J. (1976) Speech and Phenomena. Evanston, IL: North Western University Press.

28.

Derrida, J. (1978) Writing and Difference. London : Routledge.

29.

Doise, W. , Clémence, A. and Lorenzi-Cioldi,F. (1993) Analyse de Données et Représentations Sociales [Data Analysis and Social Representations]. Grenoble: PUG.

30.

Drakopoulou Dodd, S. and Anderson, A.R. (2007) `Mumpsimus and the Mything of the Individualistic Entrepreneur', International Small Business Journal 25(4): 341-60.

31.

Duveen, G. (1993) `The Development of Social Representations of Gender' , Textes sur les Représentations Sociales 2(3): 171-7.

32.

Emmons, R. (1996) `Striving and Feeling: Personal Goals and Subjective Well-being: A Nomothetic and Idiographic Approach', in P. Gollwitzer and J. Bargh (eds) The Psychology of Action: Linking Motivation and Cognition to Behaviour, pp. 313-37. New York: Guilford .

33.

Fayolle, A. (2004) `L'entrepreneuriat, un Phénomène Économique et Social' [Entrepreneurship: A Social and Economic Phenomenon], in Entrepreneuriat, Apprendre à Entreprendre [Entrepreneurship: Learning How to Start Up a Business], pp. 7-13. Paris: Dunod.

34.

Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975) Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

35.

Flick, U. (1993) `Delightful Representations of the Paradoxes in the Social World: Discussion of M. J. Spink's Paper', Textes sur les Représentations Sociales 2(1): 60-5.

36.

Fletcher, D. (2005) `Book Review: Narrative and Discursive Approaches in Entrepreneurship: A Second Movements in Entrepreneurship Book', International Small Business Journal 23(5): 569-71.

37.

Foucault, M. (1969) The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Routledge.

38.

Gergen, K.J. , Gergen, M.M. and Jurtas, S. (1992) Psychologie Sociale [Social Psychology]. Québec: Editions Etudes Vivantes.

39.

Ghiglione, R. (1986) L'homme Communiquant [The Communicational Man] . Paris: Armand Colin.

40.

Guimelli, C. (1998) `Differentiation between the Central Core Elements of Social Representations: Normative vs. Functional Elements', Swiss Journal of Psychology 57(4): 209-24.

41.

Habermas, J. (1984) The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 1. Boston, MA: Beacon.

42.

Harris, Z.S. (1952) `Discourse Analysis', Language 28(1): 1-30.

43.

Henriquez, C. , Verheul, I. , Van der Knaap, I. and Bischoff, C. (2002) `Determinants of Entrepreneurship in France: Policies, Institutions, and Culture', in D. B. Audretsch , A. R. Thurik and A. R. M. Wennekers (eds) Entrepreneurship: Determinants and Policies in the New Economy. Boston, MA: Dordrecht.

44.

Jodelet, D. (1991) Les Représentations Sociales [Social Representations] . Paris: PUF.

45.

Jodelet, D. (1998) `Représentation Sociale: Phénomène, Concept et Théorie' [Social Representation: Phenomenon, Concept and Theory], in S. Moscovici (ed.) Psychologie Sociale [Social Psychology], pp. 361-82. Paris: PUF.

46.

Johannisson, B. (1991) `University Training for Entrepreneurship: A Swedish Approach', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 3(1): 67-82.

47.

Johansson, A.W. (2004) `Narrating the Entrepreneur', International Small Business Journal 22(3): 273-93.

48.

Katz, J. and Gartner, W.B. (1988) `Properties of Emerging Organizations', Academy of Management Review 13(3): 429-41.

49.

Keenoy, T. , Oswick, C. and Grant, D. (1997) `Organizational Discourses: Text and Context', Organization 4(2): 147-57.

50.

Kets de Vries, M.F.R. (2000) `Creative Rebels with a Cause', in S. Birley and D. Muzyka (eds) Mastering Entrepreneurship, pp. 6-14. London: Prentice Hall.

51.

Kim, M.S. and Hunter, J.E. (1993) `Relationships among Attitudes, Behavioral Intentions, and Behaviors: A Meta-analysis of Past Research', Communication Research 20: 331-64.

52.

Krueger,N.F. (1996) `Nurturing Entrepreneurial Potential', paper presented at the USASBE Conference, Atlanta, January.

53.

Krueger, N.F. (2000) `The Cognitive Infrastructure of Opportunity Recognition' , Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 24(3): 5-23.

54.

Krueger, N.F. and Brazeal, D.V. (1994) `Entrepreneurial Potential and Potential Entrepreneurs' , Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 18(3): 91-104.

55.

Krueger, N.F. and Carsrud, A.L. (1993) `Entrepreneurial Intentions: Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 5(4): 315-30.

56.

Ljunggren, E. and Alsos, G.A. (2001) `Media Expressions of Entrepreneurs: Frequency, Content and Appearance of Male and Female Entrepreneurs', paper presented at the Babson College-Kauffman Foundation Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Jönköping, June.

57.

Lounsbury, M. and Glynn, M.A. (2001) `Cultural Entrepreneurship: Stories, Legitimacy, and the Acquisition of Resources', Strategic Management Journal 22: 545-64.

58.

McQuail, D. (1985) `With the Benefit of Hindsight, Reflections on Uses and Gratifications Research', in M. Gurevitch and M. R. Levy (eds) Mass Communication Review Yearbook, Vol. 5, pp. 125-41. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

59.

Maingueneau, D. (1991) L'analyse du Discours: Introduction aux Lectures de l'archive [Discourse Analysis: Introduction]. Paris : Hachette.

60.

Moliner, P. (1995) `Noyau Central, Principes Organisateurs et Modèle Bi-dimensionnel des Représentations Sociales' [Core Elements, Organizing Principles and Bi-dimensional Model of Social Representations], Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale 28(4): 44-55.

61.

Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. London : Sage.

62.

Moscovici, S. (1976) La Psychanalyse, son Image et son Public [Psychoanalysis, its Image and Public]. Paris: PUF .

63.

Moscovici, S. (1982) `The Coming Era of Representations', in J.-P. Codol and J.-P. Leyens (eds) Cognitive Approaches to Social Behaviour. Lahaye: Nijhoff.

64.

Nahapier, J. and Goshal, S. (1998) `Social Capital, Intellectual Capital, and the Organisational Advantage', Academy of Management Review 23(2): 242-66.

65.

Neisser, U. and Fivush, R. (1994) The Remembering Self: Construction and Accuracy in the Self-narrative. New York: Cambridge University Press.

66.

Nicholson, L. and Anderson, A. (2005) `News and Nuances of the Entrepreneurial Myth and Metaphor: Linguistic Games in Entrepreneurial Sense-making and Sense-giving' , Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 29(2): 153-72.

67.

O'Connor, E.S. (2000) `Plotting the Organization: The Embedded Narrative as a Construct for Studying Change', Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 36(2): 174-92.

68.

Ogbor, J.O. (2000) `Mythicising and Reification in Entrepreneurial Discourse: Ideology-critique of Entrepreneurial Studies', Journal of Management Studies 37(5): 605-35.

69.

Patton, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd edn. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

70.

Petty, R.E. and Wegener, D.T. (1999) `The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current Status and Controversies', in S. Chaiken and Y. Trope (eds) Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, pp. 41-72. New York: Guilford Press.

71.

Pink, D.H. (2001) Free Agent Nation: The Future of Working for Yourself . New York: Warner Books.

72.

Pollock,T.G. and Rindova, V.P. (2003) `Media Legitimation Effects in the Market for Initial Public Offerings', Academy of Management Review 46(5): 631-42.

73.

Popescu, C. (2001) `Machiavel et le Principe de Légitimité' [Machiaveli's Principle of Legitimacy], Les Cahiers Européens de Bruxelles 7(September): 1-34.

74.

Popper, M. (2007) `Normativity: Approaches, Polemics, Problems', Human Affairs 17(1): 3-9.

75.

Potter, J. and Wetherell, M. (1987) Discourse and Social Psychology: Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour. London: Sage.

76.

Ricoeur, P. (1985) Temps et Récit [Time and Tale]. Paris: Seuil.

77.

Rindova, V.P. , Pollock, T.G. and Hayward, M.L.A. (2006) `Celebrity Firms: The Social Construction of Market Popularity', Academy of Management Review 31(1): 50-71.

78.

Rouquette, M.-L. (1994) La Connaissance des Masses: Essai de Psychologie Politique [Mass Knowledge: A Study in Political Psychology]. Grenoble: PUG.

79.

Scherer, R.F. et al. (1989) `Rome Model Performance Effects on Development of Entrepreneurial Career Preference', Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice 13(3): 53-71.

80.

Searle, J.S. (1998) La Construction de la Réalité Sociale [The Construction of Social Reality]. Paris: Gallimard .

81.

Shapero, A. (1975) `The Displaced, Uncomfortable Entrepreneur', Psychology Today 9(6): 83-8.

82.

Shapero, A. and Sokol, L. (1982) `The Social Dimensions of Entrepreneurship', in C. A. Kent , D. L. Sexton and K. H. Vesper (eds) Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, pp. 72-90. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

83.

Sperber, D. (2000) Metarepresentations: A Multidisciplinary Perspective . Oxford: Oxford University Press .

84.

Swedberg, R. (2000) Entrepreneurship: The Social Science View. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

85.

Tkachev,A. and Kolvereid,L. (1999) `Self-employment Intentions among Russian Students', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 11(3): 269-80.

86.

Uzunidis, D. (1999) `L'entreprise Mondiale et l'État National, Le Libéralisme en Cause' [Global Corporation and Nation State, Liberalism Under Scrutiny] , paper presented at the Colloque `Mondialisation, Institutions, Citoyenneté', Parlement Européen, Bruxelles, 29-30 April.

87.

Van Dijk, T. (1988) News as Discourse. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

88.

Wilson, F. and Riach, K. (2005) `Book Review: The Scientific Reproduction of Gender Inequality: A Discourse Analysis of Research Texts on Women's Entrepreneurship' , International Small Business Journal 23(1): 103-4.