Abstract
Communities in Sri Lanka own a remarkable fund of under-utilized, under-appreciated, and unidentified indigenous knowledge and skills, which mostly become obsolete or extinct due to various reasons. The indigenous knowledge (IK) system, particularly in medicine, mainly remains of a tacit nature. Therefore, managing indigenous knowledge of indigenous medicine is a great challenge. It is believed that economic independence and sustainability can be achieved through a hybrid system of development by amalgamating existing IK and modern technologies. The management of IK will revalidate the dying cultures and promote community-based involvement in development programmes of a country. The objectives of the study were to identify existing formats of IK on indigenous medicine, available policies to manage IK of indigenous medicine, and barriers to manage IK of the indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. Government institutions such as departments, universities, museums, and libraries have a moral responsibility to identify, collect, preserve, and disseminate indigenous knowledge for the benefit of the local and global community. The selected institutional heads and librarians of the most relevant government institutes in the country represented the target population of the study and the data collection was done through documentary survey, interviews and observations. The study identified much valuable tangible and intangible IK of indigenous medicine, scattered throughout the country. Ola-leaf manuscripts are identified as the basic written format of IK of indigenous medicine, while the rest of the knowledge remains as personnel memories. Government intervention, and formulation and implementation of policies and strategies for the management of IK, were the fundamental recommendations made based on findings of the study, whereas active collaboration among related institutes was considered the second. The potential of information and communication technologies was recognized in the process of IK management.
Introduction
Overview of indigenous knowledge (IK)
Communities in most countries inherit their own knowledge systems, called indigenous knowledge (IK). A knowledge system of that nature can be considered as the national heritage of the country. The terms ‘indigenous knowledge’ (IK), ‘traditional knowledge’ (TK), and ‘local knowledge’ are used interchangeably all over the world.
IK is local knowledge unique to a given culture or a society. It forms the basis for decision-making in local contexts of agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource management and a host of other activities in rural communities (UNESCO, 2017). IK is a complete body of knowledge, expertise and practices, maintained and developed generally by people in rural areas, who have extended histories of interaction with the natural environment (Sithole, 2007). Kaniki and Mphahlele (2002) describe IK as the total sum of knowledge and skills possessed by people belonging to a particular geographic area that enable them to benefit from their natural environment. Within this context, Akena (2012) identified specific groups such as parents, students, and community members as indigenous knowledge bearers. In the broad sense individuals, communities, or an entire society can be identified as IK holders. However, most IK holders, schools, or traditions make profound attempts to maintain their IK within their own boundaries, with their knowledge, expertise, and practices conserved as secrets which are not divulged to anyone other than a member of the group or family. As a result, while part of such knowledge is codified, the rest remains as memories harboured in the minds of people.
Sithole (2007) emphasized the common agreement in the published literature on the dissemination of IK as follows: IK is commonly exchanged through personal communication and demonstrations from teachers to apprentices, from parents to children, and from neighbours to neighbours. Stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, agricultural and food practices, equipment, materials, healthcare systems, community laws, local languages, plant species, and animal breeds are the forms of IK transmitted orally from generation to generation.
Due to the tacit nature of IK and current socio-economic and cultural and scientific developments, IK is at great risk of disappearing. Dweba and Mearns (2011) added that poor recognition is one of the reasons for the erosion of people’s knowledge. The development of IK systems, covering all aspects of life, has been a matter of remedial measures for problems encountered in the communities that generate these systems. Learning from IK, and investigating the knowledge and possessions of local communities can improve understanding of native conditions and provide a productive context for activities designed to help communities. Sharing IK within and across communities can enhance their cross-cultural understanding and promote the cultural dimension of development. Taking the potential value of IK into consideration, it has to be preserved and utilized for social wellbeing.
Indigenous knowledge in indigenous medicine
Indigenous medicine is the sum total of knowledge, skills and practices based on theories, beliefs, and experiences which are strands of different cultures, whether explicable or not, used for the maintenance of health and prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illnesses (World Health Organization, 2017). De Wet and Ngubane (2014) recognized that indigenous medicine has been practised for thousands of years in South Africa, greatly contributing to primary health-care at the community level. In some Asian and African countries, 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine for primary health care (World Health Organization, 2017). Herbs are considered as a requisite or primary medicinal treatment, and are accessible to rural communities and the urban poor (Kaniki and Mphahlele, 2002). Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations, and finished herbal products that contain active ingredients of parts of plants other plant materials, or combinations thereof (Dan et al., 2010; World Health Organization, 2017). Developed countries too have now recognized the value of traditional medicine, and health care statistics demonstrate that 70% to 80% of the population in many developed countries depends on traditional medicine as the alternative medicine (World Health Organization, 2017). Indigenous medicine is often termed ‘traditional’, ‘complementary,’ ‘alternative,’ or ‘non-conventional,’ medicine.
Indigenous medicine is not an isolated area of knowledge, but an extended knowledge system related to religion, astrology, spiritual power, rituals, etc. Ramcharan and Sinjela (2005) described traditional medicine as a combination of herbal and spiritual elements. Treatments often include either religious observances or spiritual rites (Cho, 2004; Dan et al., 2010). Being culturally appropriate and environmental friendly with fewer side effects are some of the favourable features of indigenous medicine. Hence, improving and promoting indigenous medicine are important in the interest of achieving socio-economic development goals. Liamputtong et al. (2011) state that traditional healers are dignified figures in the health sector and leaders in the community. Thus, empowering local leaders, including traditional medical practitioners (Demaio, 2011), can help ensure sustainability of the health system.
Literature review
Nature of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is described by Njiraine and Roux (2011) as tacit knowledge stored in people’s memories and deeply rooted in activities that cover all aspects of life. Existing indigenous knowledge systems are developed by people in order to overcome challenges faced by them in their lives. They have built up and established appropriate mechanisms as remedial measures for those challenges, and have refined them through experience and trial and error experiments. IK is a socially desirable, economically affordable, and sustainable resource that involves minimum risk (Sithole, 2007). Kashmelmous and Sen (2006) state that IK encompasses more than just technologies and practices. It includes ‘information’ (e.g. trees and plants that grow well together); ‘practices and technologies’ (e.g. bone setting methods); ‘beliefs’ (e.g. holy forests that form vital watersheds); ‘education’ (e.g. apprenticeships); and ‘communication’ (e.g. folk media).
Generally, IK is exchanged through personal communication and demonstrations from the teacher to the apprentice, from parents to children, from neighbour to neighbour. The traditional chain of oral communication is disintegrating due to urbanization and changes in life style, family, and community relationships. Adults or the younger generation have no time or interest in spending time on their traditional heritage. Grenier (1998: 5) considers that “More and more knowledge is being lost as a result of the disruption of traditional channel of oral communication.” Most IK systems are seriously influenced by rapid population growth, modern technology and development, globalization, and educational systems. Butaud et al. (2015) describe the loss of traditional knowledge as a global reality in this era. In the light of Siriginidi’s (2006) critical view on the prevailing situation, IK systems are at risk of becoming extinct due to rapid changing natural environments and fast pacing economic, political, and cultural changes at a global scale. In addition, colonialism undermined the value and usage of IK in developing countries over the last two centuries. McPherson (2007) commented that colonialism has robbed the sub-Saharan region of its heritage. International organizations such as UNESCO, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), etc. have focused their attention on the rapid loss of IK over the last decade as a global crisis, and UNESCO (2017) stressed that not only unwritten, undocumented languages, but important ancestral knowledge also will have been lost by the end of this century. Presently, a part of IK is codified while the rest remains as people’s memories.
Importance of indigenous knowledge
Senanayake (2006) describes IK as a key to sustainable development, because it constantly provides appropriate mechanisms to resolve problems related to the relevant discipline. Most developing countries now realize the importance of IK in sustainable development. Chisita (2011) stressed that IK plays a vital role in formulation and implementation of sustainable development policies and projects, which is not limited to developing countries. Tjiek (2006) pointed out that most Western countries have increased interest in IK in the developing countries because of their favourable features. IK is recognized as a tool to promote cultural sensitivity or an appropriate form of development for a country (Kargbo, 2006). Hunter (2005) states that the capture and preservation of indigenous knowledge help to revitalize endangered cultures, improve economic independence and sustainability of indigenous communities, and increase community-based involvement in planning and development.
Documentation of indigenous knowledge
Documentation is one way to validate, disseminate, and protect IK from biopiracy (Sithole, 2007), though there is a threat of misappropriation of IK. Some IKs, such as indigenous medicine, cannot be fully documented as they are based on the thoughts, practices and blessings of practitioners. The potential of information communication technology (ICT) in knowledge management has rapidly increased due to its favourable features such as accuracy, speed, storage capacity, organization, dissemination techniques, etc. and ICT initiatives such as electronic databases and websites are used to publish local knowledge on a global scale. The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in India, the Korean Traditional Knowledge Portal, and the Chinese Traditional Medicine Database System are a few examples.
Knowledge management
Knowledge management is the process that accommodates communities or organizations in manipulating their knowledge. It includes establishment of strategies and procedures, with proper utilization of technologies (Lwoga et al., 2010). Atefeh et al. (1999) and Njiraine and Roux (2011) defined knowledge management as a management process that involves identifying, capturing, disseminating, and exploiting the knowledge possessed by an organization for the benefit of employees and clients. In this context, knowledge management theories and practices can be utilized to manage the indigenous knowledge of indigenous medicine. Lwoga et al. (2010) confirmed that some knowledge management practices are already used in communities to enhance the management of IK.
Indigenous knowledge management policy
Some African and Asian countries have formulated policies and development programmes, including legal frameworks, to promote IK. In many countries, the government and NGOs help communities with promoting IK-based products and services, including forest and agricultural products, herbal medicine, cultural heritage, or traditional health-based tourism (Kothari, 2007). Msuya (2007) specified that each country should have an IK management policy which encourages and provides guidelines on innovation, conservation and preservation of IK, including government appreciation of IK, political commitment on IK, copyright and patent issues, usage of IK, trans-border IK and how to share it, protection of IK, preservation of IK, and distribution of benefits accrued from IK. Financial matters related to IK management should also form part of IK policy. Abioye et al. (2011) considered IK management policy as a vital requirement for a country.
Challenges in the management of indigenous knowledge
A limited number of individuals in any society know and master their own knowledge system, such as indigenous medicine, in depth. Further, they treat their knowledge as their family or personal heritage. Such an attitude hinders the management of IK. Primadesi (2012) identified the prevailing situation of IK in Sumatra, and noted that only a limited number of individuals are competent enough to implement the oral traditions, while not only traditional practices, but also the terms and conditions, meaning, value and philosophical insight of IK are known by a very few people. Language barriers, different writing styles, including flowing hands and hidden formats are other difficulties faced by IK managers. For example IK can be found in number of different languages in India (Hariharan et al., 2014). Insufficient IK management policies and lack of appropriate information and communication technology policies badly affect the management of IK in developing countries. Countries such as Korea and China have been able to manage their IK with the help of IK management policies while encouraging IK-based innovations and integration of IK with modern knowledge (Hariharan et al., 2014). Siriginidi (2006) summarized some difficulties experienced by IK managers which are common to any developing country as follows: insufficient funds, inadequate cooperation from responsible agencies, dearth of trained power, reinvention of the wheel, inability to harness past experiences, poor documentation, and poor networking and sharing among related institutions.
Sri Lanka
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island in the Indian Ocean with a total land area of 65,610 square kilometers. Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces and 25 districts for administrative purposes and each district subdivides into several Divisional Secretariats and Gramaseva Divisions (the smallest administrative area, usually combining two or three villages). The total population is 20.2 million, consisting of 9.8 million males and 10.4 million females. The rural population comprises 77.3%, the urban population, 18.3%, and the balance of 4.4% represents the population of the estate sector (Department of Census and Statistics, 2012). Three major ethnic groups reside in the country, namely Sinhala, Tamil, and Moor. Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages and the entire population has a literacy rate of 95%.
Indigenous knowledge systems in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is very rich in biodiversity, cultural heritage and indigenous knowledge (Senanayake, 2006). The socio-economic system in the country is greatly influenced by indigenous knowledge systems, which mainly include water management, healthcare, and agriculture. Knowledge systems used by the older generation remain in society in various forms and validity, and communities accept the use of such knowledge.
Sri Lanka is considered a ‘hydraulic civilization’. The irrigation works in ancient Sri Lanka were some of the most complex irrigation of the ancient world. They consist of many tanks (reservoirs), ponds and water parks connected by a network of irrigation canals. The primary role of these irrigation systems was to supply water for agriculture and public utilities. Ruins of arts and crafts and architectural remains in ancient cities such as Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Sigiriya (World Heritage), and cultural events such as ‘Esala perahara’ (the world famous cultural procession held to pay homage to the sacred tooth relic of Lord Buddha) provide evidence of the cultural identity of the country.
Indigenous medical system of Sri Lanka
The history of the indigenous system of medicine in Sri Lanka traces back to pre-Aryan civilization in the country. Hansini et al. (2016) claim that it is older than 3000 years. According to folk stories, King Ravana was a great physician who initiated the medical tradition in the country. The indigenous medical history of the country states that he authored a number of medical books (Attygalle, 1888; Obeysekara, 2013). Currently, certain families or traditions, individuals, and communities maintain the traditional medical knowledge system. For example, the ‘Horivila’ tradition is well recognized for bone setting (orthopaedics) while the ‘Yatiyana’ tradition is famous for treating paralysis. This knowledge is disseminated within family boundaries or to apprentices through traditional channels.
The indigenous medical system of the country is called ‘Deshiya Chikitsa’, ‘Sinhala Vedakama’ or ‘Hela Vedakama,’ which encompass ritual healing practices, astrology, religious observances, and spiritual powers. Experiences gained over a long period of time form the basis of this system. The history of medicine in Sri Lanka has been maintained for centuries by synthesizing several factors, some of which were unique to the country (Uragoda, 1987). The Indian system of medicine known as ‘Ayurveda’ was introduced into Sri Lanka with the arrival of Prince Vijaya and his band of settlers from North India in the 6th century BC, while the existing medical system (Hela Vedakama) was integrated with the Ayurvedic system when Arahath Mahinda introduced Buddhism to the country in the 3rd century BC (Commission on Indigenous Medicine, 1947: 4).
The government of Sri Lanka, having recognized the value of the indigenous system of medicine, established a separate department in 1961 and a ministry in 1980 to upgrade and re-validate the indigenous system of medicine. At present around 20,000 registered indigenous medical practitioners and over 8,000 un-registered practise in the public health care service in the country (Ministry of Health and Indigenous Medicine, 2013). A considerable proportion of the population consults both types of practitioners.
Due to current socio economic developments and factors such as low recognition and lack of support from the government, this precious system of knowledge faces the danger of extinction with the passing away of the older generation. The President of Sri Lanka correctly identified this situation and highlighted the importance of indigenous knowledge at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in 2015. Thus, the responsibility lies with the government and communities who enjoy the benefits of indigenous medicine to raise their voices to maintain it as their heritage and as a part of the country’s economy.
Statement of problem
The importance of protecting indigenous knowledge nationally and internationally is repeatedly emphasized by national organizations, international organizations and IK holders. Many countries in the world have recognized the impact of traditional knowledge in the development process. Nwagwu (2007) proposed to incorporate IK as a major component in the development process in all human communities. Abioye et al. (2011) observed that IK plays a vital role in the sustainable development programme of food security in Nigeria. Compared with many modern technologies, indigenous techniques are the most appropriate in local circumstances. Development processes designed by neglecting the local knowledge of a country have wasted time and resources.
As in many other countries, most of the IK systems in Sri Lanka, including indigenous medicine, are lost and continue to be lost due to lack of codification, rapid population growth, technological developments, globalization, and educational, political, and cultural transformations. Senanayake (2006) stressed that IK in Sri Lanka has not been adequately recorded and is not accessible to researchers and any other parties who engage in the development process. Ranasinghe (2005) stated that it is an urgent requirement to manage IK for the benefit of the future generation. Hariharan et al. (2014) added that changes in natural environments, lack of awareness of IK and language barriers are also some of the challenges faced by IK in general. Countries which experience these challenges still struggle to formulate sound policies and mechanisms to preserve and protect their indigenous knowledge, which is vital for a country (Abioye et al., 2011). Within this context, a preliminary study was planned to identify the background information on IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka, including identifying existing IK formats, policies and prevailing challenges of IK management.
Identification of the existing formats of IK is imperative for creating an awareness of IK structures and determining appropriate mechanisms in order to manage IK effectively. Investigation of prevailing constraints on IK management brings critical issues relating to the IK management. Identification of current trends in the IK management process is expected to provide a basis for the formulation of an IK management policy for the country or to revise the existing policy for the benefit of the local and global community.
Objectives of the study
This study aims to achieve the following objectives: To identify the types of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. To identify the holders of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. To identify the existing formats of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. To examine the existence of the policy for the management of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. To explore the constraints in the management of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka.
Research questions
The following research questions are formulated to achieve the expected goals of this study:
What are the types of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka?
Who are the holders of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka?
What are the existing formats of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka?
Are there management policies for IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka?
What are the constraints experienced in management of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka?
Methodology
The aim of the study was to investigate the prevailing indigenous knowledge management system on indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. According to Lavallee (2009), research on IK pays more attention to community-based data and involves the collection of narrative rather than numerical data. With the guidance of the available literature, the qualitative research method was employed for this study.
Purposive sampling was used to select the sample for the study. The researcher identified eight government institutes related to the field of study. Five out of these eight institutes were libraries: the Department of the Museum Library in Colombo; the National Library and Documentation Services Board; the library of the University of Peradeniya, the oldest national university which possesses a large collection of manuscripts; and two libraries of indigenous medical institutes attached to the national universities. The study population consisted of five librarians, two heads of indigenous medical institutes, and the head of the Department of Indigenous Medicine. Seven of the eight respondents were female. The only male respondent represented the Department of Indigenous Medicine. Other demographic information on the study population was not recorded since the respondents were heads of the institutes or libraries.
Documentary survey and interviews conducted with semi-structured questionnaires, followed by observations, were used as data collection tools.
The data on indigenous medical history and tangible and intangible medical literature was collected through the documentary survey.
The broad areas covered by the interview schedule were: size of the collection, including details such as different formats; quality of the materials; languages used to inscribe; subjects covered by the materials, etc.; problems encountered in the process of collecting and preserving IK; availability of policies to manage IK (institutional or national); existing methodologies used to collect IK from individuals or institutions.
All respondents extended their cooperation by allocating time for interviews and facilitating visits to their library collections. The researcher spent over two hours at each institute, with his research assistant, in order to collect data. The information from interviews was recorded through writing notes and the researcher personally examined all manuscript collections housed in the selected libraries.
The collected data was analyzed and presented using the narrative method, which is broadly used in the qualitative approach as it involves descriptive data rather than numerical data and can be employed to describe data collected through interviews, documents or observations (Riessman, 2008). It allows elaborating the experiences and understanding gained by the participants.
This study is limited to the identification of the government institutions responsible for management of IK, existing IK formats, the availability of IK management policies and constraints in management of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka.
Findings
Types of IK in indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka
Historical and archaeological evidence proves that there has been a well-established indigenous medical system in Sri Lanka for centuries. Mahawamsa, the great chronicle of Sri Lanka, describes a government-sponsored health care system, which dates back to the 4th century BC during the reign of King Pandukabhaya (Mahavamsa, 1960). The hospital system established in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, the capital cities of the country during the period starting from the 4th century BC, embraced four categories: hospitals for Buddhist monks, hospitals for laymen, maternity homes and hospitals for outdoor patients (Siriweera, 2003). Muller-Dietz (1975) describes the Mihintale Hospital in Anuradhapura as perhaps the oldest hospital in the world. Knox (1681) in his book titled ‘Historical account on Sri Lanka’ elaborates on the indigenous medical system of the country as follows: “Here are no professed physitians [physicians] nor chyrurgeons [surgeons], but all in general have some skill that way and are physitians, and chyrurgeons to themselves.” Not only in Sri Lanka, but also other countries such as China, India and Korea (Hariharan et al., 2014) and Indonesia (Primadesi, 2012), and African countries (Msuya, 2007), possess well-established indigenous medical systems basically in oral form. Chakraborty and Paul (2004) noted that the scarcity of writing materials, unavailability of their own scripts and lack of literacy were some of the reasons for maintaining the oral tradition in the communities which possessed IK.
The survey revealed that according to the oral history, Pulastya Rishi (According to legends, Pulastya is one of the one of the ten Prajapatis or mind-born sons of Brahma) was the earliest personality associated with the indigenous medical system in Sri Lanka. It is believed that the ancient King Ravana, grandson of Pulastya Rishi, continued the medical tradition. As a great physician too, he wrote five books on medicine namely: Arka Prakasha, Nadi Prakasha, Agni Prakasha, Kumara Thantra and Uddish Thantra (Obeysekara, 2013). Some of these books remain as the only documentary evidence of the early history of medicine in the country. Thereafter, a number of source books on medicine were written by renowned authors. Saratha Sangrahaya, Besajjamanjusa, Yogarnavaya, Prayogarathnavaliya, Yogarathnakaraya are some of these works. A large number of indigenous medical practitioners dealt with fulfilling the medical requirements of the country.
The Ayurveda Medical Council of Sri Lanka has recognized nine branches of the medical system: Sarvanga (General medicine), Sarpa Vedakama (Treatments for snakebite), Kadumbidum Vedakama (Treatments of fractures and dislocations), Oduvana Vedakama (Treatment for abscess and tumors), Davum Pilissum Vedakama (Treatment for burning), Vidum Pilissum Vedakama (Piercing and heat treatment), Es Vedakama (Ophthalmology), Manasikaroga Vedakama (Psychiatry), and Charmaroga Vedakama (Dermatology). In addition, veterinary medicine was one of the well established branches of medicine in the country (Mahavamsa, 1960).
De Silva (1913) described two broad categories of indigenous medical system based on Saratha Sangraha, which was composed by King Buddhadasa in Sanskrit in the 5th century AC. The first category is dedicated for the treatment of human beings, while the second is dedicated for the treatment of animals such as elephants, horses and birds such as fowls and peacocks. Treatment for cattle was one of the wide spread areas of veterinary medicine in the country which was not included among the animals listed in the Saratha Sangraha.
Custodians of IK of indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka and its format
Sri Lanka possesses a well-established indigenous medical system basically in the oral form. The survey revealed that, except for the major source books and some manuscripts, indigenous knowledge of medicine still remains of a tacit nature. Historical evidence says that up to early 19th century the Ola leaf – a kind of palm leaf – was the main writing material in the country. Apart from the above-mentioned source books, there were many Ola-leaf manuscripts in personal collections and monasteries, including commentaries and glossaries of the original works. Somadasa (1959) identified 1587 monasteries which declared their holdings, which included around 70,000 Ola-leaf manuscripts on various subjects.
Many of the early works kept in the palaces, monasteries and personal collections have disappeared as a result of general destruction of valuable libraries and personal collections, the influence of foreign invasions, etc. Some of the invaders destroyed the palaces of the kings, monasteries and their belongings, including the collections of their libraries. A large number of manuscripts have been taken away by the colonial rulers. Perera (2014) has collected information on Ola-leaf manuscripts taken from Sri Lanka and housed in other countries, based on catalogues and historical records. According to him there are around 4000 Ola-leaf manuscripts in the British Museum Library, 66 Ola-leaf manuscripts in Cambridge University Library, 94 Ola-leaf manuscripts on indigenous medicine in the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine in London, 109 Ola-leaf manuscripts on indigenous medicine in the Osler Library of the History of Medicine in Canada, 115 Ola-leaf manuscripts on indigenous medicine in libraries of the United States, and a large quantity of Ola-leaf manuscripts on indigenous medicine housed in the Amsterdam Museum, in The Netherlands. Liyanarathne (1999) stated that more than 100 Sri Lankan Ola-leaf manuscripts are housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
Ola-leaf manuscripts housed in monasteries, libraries or personal collections are on various subjects, including Buddhism, literature, indigenous medicine and subjects related to indigenous medicine such as astrology, psychiatry (bhuta vidya), charms (mantras) and talismans (yantras) in Sinhala, Pali and Sanskrit. Some of the manuscripts have been written in the form of verses and some of the medical recipes have been written in the form of riddles.
The study observed that all the institutes selected for the study have collected many Ola-leaf manuscripts and some paper-based manuscripts. Numbers of Ola-leaf manuscripts held by each library are as follows:
The Department of the Museum Library, Colombo: 3841
National Library and Documentation Services Board: 292.
University of Peradeniya Library: 4800
Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Colombo: 480.
Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Kelaniya: 42.
The Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Kelaniya also owns 80 paper based manuscripts, while the Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Colombo owns 108. However, the respondents have no mechanism to build up their library collections with materials of rich national and cultural value. It is revealed that only a limited number of people possess a sound knowledge of IK in Sri Lanka. Among them, there are three types of IK holders in indigenous medicine as follows: Registered indigenous medical practitioners. Unregistered indigenous medical practitioners. Non-medical practitioners.
Existence of indigenous medicine management policy
The study revealed that lack of any sound policy or mechanism to manage IK in indigenous medicine in the country affects the protection of the valuable knowledge system, which is gradually disappearing with the older generation.
All the respondents were of the same opinion on IK management policy. According to them there is no mechanism to identify, collect, evaluate and purchase valuable materials held in personal collections for their libraries. Therefore, they depend on donations in collecting materials like Ola-leaf manuscripts. Similarly, there is no well-established preservation and dissemination policy for existing collections.
It was identified that the major areas which have to be covered by policy decisions on IK management are: identifying or locating IK of indigenous medicine dispersed in the country; collecting Ola-leaf or paper-based manuscripts and intangible knowledge scattered in the country and overseas; preservation of IK in the public or private domain; and benefit sharing system, including protection of intellectual property through national and international legal frameworks and patents.
The study identified that the Department of Indigenous Medicine has taken some steps to collect manuscripts in indigenous medicine from registered indigenous medical practitioners. It has failed due to poor communication and planning. The Head of the Department of Indigenous Medicine said “that we have been unable to maintain a strong mutual understanding with IK holders of indigenous medicine is one of the reasons for failure the project.”
Constraints in management of IK in indigenous medicine
Although a number of government institutes exists in the field of indigenous medicine, the lack of leading institutes to manage IK of indigenous medicine and absence of co-operation among related institutes were identified as constraints to manage IK. The head of the Department of Indigenous Medicine stated: “University Institutions are attached to a separate ministry and a department. And the Department of Indigenous Medicine plays a different role in the same field. Therefore, the Department has no power to interfere with the duties performed by those institutes.”
Inadequate financial support, poor infrastructure facilities and minimal use of modern technologies also caused the IK management process to be set back. All the institutes selected for the study stressed their positions on IK management as follows: “Purchasing, maintenance and preservation cost of Ola-leaf and paper based manuscripts are comparatively high. As we are non-profit making bodies our annual budgetary allocations are poor. Our collection development in relation to IK is limited to donations. Sometimes we experience difficulties of maintaining existing collections due to poor infrastructure facilities such as lack of proper storage, environmental conditions, and inadequate treatments against deterioration, insect attacks, etc.”
It was found that some IK of indigenous medicine management projects failed due to institutional negligence. The following description by one of the respondents discloses the extent of negligence of some of the institutions in relation to preservation of IK in indigenous medicine: “The Ola-leaf manuscripts collection had been microfilmed with the foreign funds long time ago, before the respondent was recruited in the institute. The project was completed. The administration of the institute was changed from time to time. No one cares about the microfilms. At present almost all the microfilms are unserviceable due to the poor maintenance.”
Discussion
The researcher found that collecting, preserving, and disseminating IK in various formats such as printed and electronic media are extremely valuable tasks for all related institutions. Kargbo (2005) emphasized that the success of IK management projects depends on the commitment of the library system. However, none of the libraries which responded follows an acquisition policy or similar mechanism for collecting materials related to IK. Library professionals show no enthusiasm to develop an effective mechanism or to actively participate in the management of IK as partners in a knowledge society.
All respondents emphasized that documentation is the first step to be employed in the IK management process, and recognized identification of specialists, case studies, field observations, in-depth interviews, participant observations, and participative technology analysis as appropriate mechanisms to support the IK documentation process. At the same time, they emphasized that specialized IK, including spiritual power and blessings invoked by gifted practitioners endowed with special characteristics and treatment skills developed later in their lives, cannot be transferred to the next generation in any way.
From three types of IK holders in indigenous medicine, indigenous medical practitioners registered in the Department of Indigenous Medicine comprised the first category, while practitioners who have not registered in the Department comprised the second category. The third category includes two types of individuals as follows: Individuals who possess codified medical literature with or without tacit knowledge, or individuals who have some tacit knowledge of indigenous medicine with or without codified medical literature. Individuals who provide some medicine or practise rituals or combination of both to heal illness, with or without spiritual power.
The study observed that there are many Ola-leaf manuscripts and some paper-based manuscripts collected by the selected libraries. They are different in nature. The majority (95%) of Ola-leaf manuscripts housed in two libraries attached to the Institute of Indigenous Medicine were on indigenous medicine. Other collections comprised a mixture of manuscripts on subjects such as agriculture, Buddhism, indigenous medicine, Gupta vidya (esoteric philosophy), astrology, and literature. At present they are in the classification process. Manuscripts were of different qualities; some are well preserved in very good condition, some require immediate measures for preservation, while the rest were imperfect. Paper based manuscripts also are imperfect.
Apart from the institutional collections, heads of the Department of Indigenous Medicine and Institutes of Indigenous Medicine identified a plethora of IK scattered countrywide among unregistered medical practitioners and non-medical practitioners. According to them, some collections are properly maintained, while the rest are inaccessible.
The heads of the Department of Indigenous Medicine and Institutes of Indigenous Medicine also believe that a mass of IK still remains in tacit nature. The tacit knowledge of indigenous medicine is retained as personal memories, activities, equipment, folklore, riddles, etc. which are used by indigenous medical practitioners and communities. The heads of the two institutions, i.e. Institute of Indigenous Medicine of University of Colombo and University of Kelaniya, were highly concerned about the tacit knowledge, as they are indigenous medical practitioners by profession. They have emphasized with evidence that some of the rare recipes and powerful secret rituals maintained by indigenous medical practitioners are in tacit nature even today. They include healing methods, and home remedies (first aids), Kehm (a kind of practice, customary techniques used to obtain a favourable effect such as relief from illness). Some Kehms are related to astrology with the use of certain plants or herbs (Senanayake, 2006), Yanthra (talisman - a symbolic drawing done on copper sheet to protect the bearer from ailing evil effects caused by deities and planets), Manthra (words, statements, or verses recited in order to either cure an illness or nullify bad effects caused by people or spiritual bodies). Primadesi (2012) describes that manthra which are used for healing some kind of illnesses bear their own features and language characteristics.
Knowledge management is a process that leads to collection, dissemination, utilization, and preservation of knowledge. Njiraine and Roux (2011) describe knowledge management as a process that involves identifying, capturing, disseminating, and exploiting the knowledge for customer benefits. The government of Sri Lanka should undertake the serious responsibility of formulating IK management policies, as many other countries in the world have done. For example, the governments of India and South Africa have taken decisions to formulate national IK policies and manage their invaluable IK by establishing IK databases (Sukula, 2006; Kaniki and Mphahlele, 2002). In Sri Lanka, the Department of Indigenous Medicine and the Ministry of Indigenous Medicine were established as the government policy making bodies and later, two government universities contributed much to the field of indigenous medicine. However, all respondents including the above-mentioned government institutions admitted the unavailability of IK of indigenous medicine management policy in the country. They also stressed that without well established mechanisms, the difficulties which are encountered with IK of indigenous medicine cannot be overcome effectively. Countries like South Africa have overcome such hindrance by adopting IK management policies (Msuya, 2007).
Each institute was queried about the strategies that they use to identify and collect IK on indigenous medicine, other than accepting them as donations. The study reveals that the Department of Indigenous medicine has made some efforts to collect manuscripts only from government registered indigenous medical practitioners, but that attempt has failed due to miscommunication and weak rapport between the parties. Institutes of indigenous medicine recruit selected registered indigenous medical practitioners as resource persons for their institutes and send students to work with selected registered indigenous medical practitioners for a specified period on internship. The objective of the programme is to transfer knowledge harboured by the older generation to the younger generation. However, they have been unable to reach the expected goal due to logistic issues experienced by both parties. None of the other respondents was especially interested in IK management of indigenous medicine.
The survey also identified three government institutes including the Department of Indigenous Medicine and two indigenous medical institutes attached to the universities, responsible for formulation and implementation of IK of indigenous medicine management policies. The researcher found that the prime responsibility of these institutes is to develop and re-establish the indigenous medical system owned by the country as a national heritage. Also it can be treated as an income generator. However any successful project could not be discovered by this survey.
All libraries selected for this research have developed their manuscript collections based on donations. It was noted that all manuscript collectors, except the library attached to the Institute of Indigenous Medicine at University of Kelaniya, possess some unidentified Ola-leaf manuscripts due to the lack of expertise to process and read them. Some existing manuscripts were in danger due to environmental factors such as dust, insects, and human activities. The need for immediate action for preservation or transferring them into other formats was identified. The library which is attached to the Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Colombo, has started copying (handwriting) paper-based manuscripts again into paper-based media. It raises a question regarding the accuracy and durability of these manuscripts.
All respondents agreed with the statement that, “There is no proper co-ordination in management of IK of indigenous medicine.” Co-operation at institutional and national levels is vital for achieving and ensuring effective management of IK. The countrywide IK management will not be a reality without proper planning and co-ordination. Inadequate funding is identified as one of the obstacles in this process while poor infrastructure facilities including appropriate technologies, materials, and manpower are recognized as crucial factors influencing IK management.
All librarians selected for the study emphasized that they maintain existing Ola-leaf manuscripts collections with minimum facilities. Similarly, none of the institutes has a written preservation policy to manage Ola-leaf and other manuscript collections, which is vital for the entire country. Dearth of technology, raw materials for blackening and oiling of Ola-leaf, skills, space, manpower, expertise, and inability to read some manuscripts are some of the difficulties they encounter in managing Ola-leaf manuscripts. Nevertheless, only a few institutes and limited number of persons are engaged in preservation and conservation of Ola-leaf manuscripts in the country.
Despite the fact that most old manuscripts in the country are inscribed in the Pali, Sanskrit, and Sinhala languages, it was revealed that none of the libraries have recruited employees with knowledge of Pali and Sanskrit. Hariharan et al. (2014) observed that IK of indigenous medicine was recorded in India also in various local languages. Using a single language minimizes the complexity and increases the accessibility to the knowledge base of a country. In the case of old Sinhala writings, a special training is needed to read the manuscripts since they are written in the flowing hand. Nwagwu (2007) also emphasized that modern technologies are not capable enough to codify all the features of IK.
Microfilming is an effective method to preserve the content of Ola-leaf and other manuscripts. The library attached to one of the Institutes of Indigenous Medicine had initiated microfilming their manuscript collection around ten years prior to doing it with the help of foreign funds. However, they are in an unserviceable condition at present due to the poor infrastructure facilities and institutional negligence. A project of that nature can be described as unsuccessful due to poor planning, the lack of long-term policy decisions, and depending completely on foreign funds.
Conclusion and recommendations
Indigenous medicine plays a significant role in the health sector, especially in rural areas of Sri Lanka, and receives an expanding global attention and demand. IK of indigenous medicine is found in both tangible and intangible forms. It is scattered all over the country and a considerable portion of it exists as knowledge which is not exposed to the society at large. Evidences proclaim that this knowledge system can be developed into a marketable commodity as a part of the tourist industry and in the local health sector. However, it seems that the government has not identified the potentials of the indigenous medical system in depth so far. In this context, the government must play a vital role by formulating policies and strategies to protect tangible and intangible IK of indigenous medicine from extinction with the elderly generation. The deterioration of manuscripts of medical contents, collection of untouched IK in indigenous medicine held by registered, unregistered medical practitioners and non-medical practitioners, and IK of indigenous medicine of a tacit nature are some of the challenges which have to be overcome by the government. The government must understand that the management of the IK of indigenous medicine is one of its collective responsibilities and of other stake holders. Therefore government intervention in this endeavour is vital to address existing challenges and national and international demand for indigenous medicine. Current global trends such as application of ICT, benefit sharing system for intellectual property, etc. are some of the factors which have to be considered in the process of developing IK management policies. It is also a government responsibility to propose practical and inviting policies and proposals which must focus on decimating difficulties experienced by stake holders who engaged in IK management.
Identification of trainers and training needs for the process of managing Ola-leaf and paper-based manuscripts is one of the fundamental requirements. Establishing of decentralized laboratories with infrastructure facilities and trained manpower will provide benefits for government institutes and individual IK holders.
Institutes attached to the national universities that offer indigenous medicine degrees and the Department of Indigenous Medicine should not depend on the annual budgetary allocations from the government to overcome financial difficulties. Many international organizations including the World Health Organization and the World Bank are willing to support commendable projects that improve the health of global community. Cost effective technologies such as open source software for digitization and database creation on IK, and maximum utilization of existing infrastructure facilities could cut off unnecessary expenditure. Proper co-ordination is essential for the success of such programmes. Collaboration of all the responsible institutes and libraries of IK of indigenous medicine and their networking will pave the way to overcome existing constraints in IK management and achieve expected goals for the benefit of national and international communities.
Footnotes
Acknowledgement
I sincerely thank all the librarians, heads of the institutions and Mr. R. M. Thilakerathne for his editing. They have extended their fullest support and cooperation by providing valuable information for this research. They spent their valuable time to share their knowledge with me during the interview sessions and library visits.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies either in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
