Abstract
In this book, Erik Bleich has brought together a set of papers, mostly written from the perspective of political science. The authors aim to analyse dynamic relationships between Muslim minorities and western liberal democracies in the light of security concerns. Apart from one comparative article by the editor, who compares the policy approaches of six countries: Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain, the book consists for the most part of detailed case studies of selected western states (some of those already mentioned and the USA). The outcome is a wide-ranging contribution to the understanding of the tough contemporary challenges faced by democratic states in an encounter with Muslim immigrants and citizens. In the attractive, concise and well-structured introductory essay, Bleich points to four themes that the volume explores. The first is the emergence of a ‘Muslim problem’ for European states and societies. Although the Al-Qaeda attacks of 9/11 are stressed in the title, authors emphasize various other events and processes that have caused changes in political strategies towards Muslims.
The following problems, more crucial to European policy-makers, are the types of state policies being developed in this rapidly changing context and their effectiveness. The case studies review and assess those countries where Muslims constitute significant sectors in societies. As Muslim immigration to Europe is constantly on the increase, probably each country on the continent, especially in the European Union, will sooner or later face the challenges of integrating Muslims and the integration of Islamist radicalism. It is vital to know in advance which policies can achieve their aims and which states’ minority practices can be helpful. While the authors are generally careful in giving definitive judgements, they offer some interesting preliminary thoughts and reflections, based on social surveys or their own observations.
Two conclusions come as a surprise. One would expect that the unique experiences of each European country in migration flows, state–church relations and security problems would lead to the development of diversified state responses to Muslim minorities. In the comparative overview of six western government policies, Bleich (‘State responses to “Muslim” violence: A comparison of six West European countries’) finds striking similarities. He identifies a common trend that suggests the nuanced approach of European states to the links between Islamic religion and radicalism and violence. In each case the dominant strategy consists of three vectors. There are, first of all, explicit anti-violence policies that deliberately refrain from making any references to Islam. Parallel actions consist in monitoring suspected religious figures thought to threaten the public order. Finally, states have been undertaking various measures to integrate Muslims into mainstream society. In other words, western countries with the largest Muslim minorities are alike in using a mixture of repressive and encouraging methods to deal with new security issues. This finding is confirmed by other scholars in this selection in regard to the UK, France, and the Netherlands.
Obviously, apart from those similarities, each state pursues some unique policies, invents measures and implements programmes to tackle emerging problems. Another unexpected point of this book relates to the discussion over the effectiveness of particular approaches. Especially lively debate surrounds the British and French cases. Indeed, three contributions (those by Klausen, Joppke and Mandaville), out of eight, deal explicitly with Muslims living in the UK. This disproportionate focus on only one case is justified by the fact, mentioned by Klausen (p. 54), that British counter-terrorism policies have functioned as an exemplar for other countries. Although the authors are not unanimous in their overall assessment of the British approaches, they raise some objections and discuss controversial points in policy implementation. In his chapter (‘British counter-terrorism after 7/7: Adapting community-policing to the fight against domestic terrorism’), Klausen presents an insightful overview of the British way of community-based counter-terrorism and partnership initiatives with Muslims’ representatives. Muslims were supposed to be partners in the fight against terrorism and radicalization. But, Klausen asks, what if jihadist terrorism is not a local community problem, but a part of a global action (p. 57)? In recent years some cases have shown direct links between terrorists operating in the UK and foreign groups (especially in Pakistan and Afghanistan). If so, she argues, the engagement with local Muslim communities is irrelevant to the problem of dealing with terrorist threats. Governmental partnership policing also fails in its attempt to fight with potential terrorists by means of theological education at mosques, which are not the places where terrorist recruitment usually occurs. However, in spite of the British ‘confusing mix of partnership programmes, increased criminalisation and enhanced police powers’, Klausen prefers the UK approach to that of France, for in France there are problems with guaranteeing human rights for religious people. This point could have been explored further.
Nevertheless, according to Bowen (‘Recognizing Islam in France after 9/11’) and Joppke (‘Limits of integration policy: Britain and her Muslims’), France is more effective than the UK in dealing with Muslim integration and with security issues. They quote survey results that indicate a paradox: in France more Muslims are positive about being part of the mainstream society than in Great Britain, although the latter state has been actively engaged in helping the Muslim minority. Indeed, as Joppke notes (p. 100), British Muslims hold more negative views of non-Muslims than in other western states. Britain’s multicultural endeavours have lead to serious rifts between ethnic and religious groups. In seeking an explanation for these findings, Joppke explores the limits of integration in a liberal state, casting doubt on a state’s efforts to promote the integration of its minorities. Bowen contextualizes French Islam by analysing relations between state and church. Despite the common view of French anti-clericalism, Bowen gives a detailed account of religious policy that is built upon a conviction that religion can be controlled through supportive measures. Thus, France has some obligations, including financial ones, towards religious institutions and ensures equal treatment for all religions. Recognized religions, such as Islam, are therefore ‘brought into the daylight’ (p. 87), which, as Bowen argues, is a positive move towards both social integration and security control.
Closely connected with anti-terrorist policy is the issue of youth radicalization. In the chapter ‘Boomerangs and slingshots: Radical Islamism and counter-terrorism strategy’, Saggar investigates the background of exceptionally high hidden support for Islamist terror actions among British Muslims. He indicates that some of the state’s counter-terrorism actions have weakened Muslim trust towards state institutions and incurred hopelessness and disappointment that are especially hard to change. Another channel whereby radical ideas are supposed to flow is transnationalism. Mandaville, in his essay ‘Muslim transnational identity and state responses in the UK after 9/11: Political community, ideology and authority’, traces shifts in British policy regarding transnational Islamic activities. Today the UK is suspicious of global influences on its territory, including foreign links of some of the local mosques and influential religious scholars. Drawing on his fieldwork experience among British Muslims, Mandaville usefully breaks down the category of transnationalism into different kinds of activities, claiming that this phenomenon will be understood as an increasingly dominant way of life (p. 114).
Finally, some authors pay attention to the issue of pluralism inside Islamic religion. It is not only an academic problem, but also a political one. Who should be treated as a partner in state–religion relationships? Should all Muslim groups be treated equally, or should preference be given to those who meet some criteria established by the state? To answer such questions, it is necessary to identify trends within contemporary Islam in Europe. This topic is tackled by Mandeville (in regard to British Muslims), Bagby in ‘The American mosque in transition: Assimilation, acculturation and isolation’ (who identifies five Islamic approaches in the USA) and by Buijs (‘Muslims in the Netherlands: Social and political developments after 9/11’), who first divides Muslims into democrats and radicals, but then differentiates between groups inside the Salafi camp, claiming that the majority of Salafis (so-called ‘purists’ and ‘politicos’) oppose violence and the third group, the Salafi jihadists.
Overall, in this collection, there are a few lacunae. The West is understood here to consist of the USA and some member states of the European Union. There is no relation to other European countries (the Balkans or the Central and Eastern part of the continent) that accommodated Muslim minorities centuries ago and have developed working solutions to the problem of ‘Islam in the West’. Besides, except for Bleich’s analysis, there are almost no references to the programmes of the European Union. Although integration is the problem of particular states, counter-terrorism measures are increasingly applied at the pan-European level. The reader would have also benefited substantially from more empirical data in the assessment of state strategies. These points aside, the volume constitutes a very good contribution to the study of Islam in Europe and in European studies. The bibliographies and a comprehensive index make this book helpful in further explorations and research.