Abstract
Keywords
A woman is seldom perceived as ‘ageless,’ but is habitually categorized and assessed according to her age. Age specific expectations exist for her body, her behavior, and her way of living. (p. 10)
Adhering to a constructionist framework, Constructions of Women’s Age at the Workplace is a compilation of essays that attempts to convey to its readers how gender and age are socially constructed entities. In the introductory chapter, Margret Beisheim (‘Women’s age as a “double jeopardy”: An introduction’) provides the basic postulate upon which the book is premised, i.e. age matters to women in different ways. Age specificity acts as a barrier to women in all frontiers and they are often pushed to a periphery defined by low skills, and non-remunerative work. Beisheim successfully puts forth the fact that women suffer discrimination (and hence marginalization) because they are considered physically and psychologically fragile. Women silently take such distinctions for granted and shy away from their rightful claims. Age, in addition to the gender component, compounds the apathies towards the older women and tags such as ‘bitchy old hags’ make women resort to lead an invisible life. The chapter also provides viable solutions that government and employees should undertake to set the stage for a better and more fruitful working environment to suit women of different capabilities. Beisheim dexterously poses questions that concern older women’s work options, their age of retirement, and, if they work for long, will that have any impact on their physical and psychological stamina? The introductory chapter also highlights the significant components of the rest of the chapters of the book.
In the following chapter (‘Labour market and organisational perspectives on age(ing): Bringing gender, diversity, and intersectionality into focus’), Helga Eberherr, Alexander Fleischmann and Roswitha Hofmann discuss age as a social construct and a process as well (p. 17). The authors touch upon the various theoretical connotations in the chapter and mention that sociohistorical milieu is a determinant of age, thus making the biological course culturally understandable. The novelties of the chapter are the conceptualization of age as an intersectional issue and the drawing of vital links between age, gender and ethnicity (or nationality). Their views provoke the thought that age-related stereotypes are often reproduced, and they eliminate or conceal diversities among women of different age groups. The chapter also holds a key age management structure (‘The Work Ability House’) that, if institutionalized, can improve the working environment by making it more sensitive towards intersectionality.
A study conducted in a Finnish hospital by Monika E von Bonsdorff, Sirpa Koponen and Iiris Aaltio (‘Staying in working life? Early retirement intentions among public sector nurses’) indicates that nursing (a highly female-centric job) is facing an unprecedented dearth of women. The study concluded that the majority of the nurses wanted an early retirement due to self-perceived health issues. In addition, factors like the number of children and grandchildren (nurses wanted time to take care of them), work shifts and change-oriented leadership also played a decisive role in their retirement intentions. The authors have done a good job portraying the significance of staying longer or opting out of work for older women, whereas their male counterparts (of the same age) did not wish to retire early. Such gendered patterns of retirement and retentions have been delicately dealt with in the chapter.
Irene Kloimuller (‘Ageing at work from a woman’s perspective’) argues that it is not the chronological age but the attitudes and culture of the organization the person is working in that determines if one is old. Unfavourable and inadequate working conditions not only accelerate ageing among women but also demean their physical strengths and possess fewer exciting opportunities. Citing the example of the Austrian labour market, she suggests that there is a noteworthy gendered fragmentation of the sectors. In terms of a feasible solution, Kloimuller feels that a flexible and age-conforming working environment would prove to be an ideal type. She also provides an example of the research on nursing techniques intended to establish a competence-based career model in order to retain the nurses in the job and control their frequent job switches. Her concluding remarks speak of gender-specific projects that should consider the needs of older women and promote good practices at the company level.
In ‘Factors influencing work or retirement decisions for Australian women academics’, Marilyn Clarke, Linley Hartmann and Margaret Patrickson draw a link between labour market demand and the employment of older women in the goods producing industries. Using data collected over two decades, the authors infer that the overtaking of the production industries by the services industries has affected demand for the labour of older women. Unlike other countries, however, the superannuation system (i.e. private savings for retirement) in Australia leaves older working women in a state of tribulation because they get hardly any governmental aid in the form of pensions. The example of older women in academia is explored, and the authors discuss the transformation in academic environments that have over time become more challenging and pose a threat especially to the older women. Apart from the dearth of required research portfolios and qualifications, older women on the lower rungs of the academic hierarchy suffer from lengthy periods of unemployment (or underemployment) that negatively affect their finances and subsequent superannuation benefits. To avoid working into the later period in life and to be able to retire at an adequate age, women need to reprioritize their career options.
Linley Hartmann and Helene Mayerhofer deal with theoretical concepts like the boundaryless career, the protean career and career capital in their chapter, ‘Career opportunities for older women: Does career capital theory assist in understanding the options they have?’ These concepts specify the differences in capabilities and competencies of the employees, which will help them to find better opportunities in work life. The changing dynamics of the labour market pose a threat to older women as their competency levels might not fit the changed scenario. The older women need to polish their existing skills to accommodate the updated, so-called modern labour-market demands.
In addition to the aforementioned issues threatening older women’s position in the labour market, dismissal from their respective jobs is another issue that plagues older women’s job security. Citing the instance of the Austrian Employment Law in her chapter (‘Women’s age in the Austrian Employment Law with a special focus on dismissal protection’), Linda Kreil considers the status of older women as a group protected against dismissal. However, she points out the gender discrimination and intricacies woven around married women who are at high risk of losing their jobs if their spouses earn sufficiently. In any case, Kreil also states the fact that young women too face negative attitudes at their workplace owing to pregnancy-related concerns. Being a lawyer herself, Kreil manages to substantiate her arguments regarding maternity dismissal protection and she reinforces the fact that maternity should not be considered a catastrophic disadvantage for the employer (the Austrian Law requires an expectant mother to report immediately about her pregnancy to her employer so that he/she can have sufficient time to find a substitute). She ends by stressing the fact that for women (old or young) there must be a level playing field where they get adequate social security benefits, training and education on a par with men.
The final chapter (‘Doing hair – doing age: Perspectives of emancipated ageing’) deals with the concept of ‘emancipated ageing’ (p. 119), which is based on constructionist gerontology. Florentine Maier defines emancipated ageing as not conforming to the conventions and norms usually associated with old age. Maier opines that age is socially ‘done’ (p. 121) due to constraints and has no objective existence of its own. Citing the example of haircuts among older women, Maier provides insights into the perpetual existence of emancipated ageing. Such flamboyant haircuts are generally not associated with older women and are considered in poor taste after a certain age (a social construct). On the surface, these acts appear to be age inappropriate but implicitly they contain an expression of individual personality. However, according to Maier, one cannot universalize this phenomenon because only older women belonging to higher social classes can afford (in terms of money and social acceptance) to go in for such ostentation.
The book provides key insights into the sociology of gerontology as it tries to delve into the career options, opportunities and other decisions that older women take (or are required to take). The chapters provide study results, examples, perspectives and opinions about the women who toil until late in their lives and the ramifications they face.