Sarhan Dhouib (ed.),Philosophieren in der Diktatur: Eine aktuelle Debatte in der arabischsprachigen Philosophie [Philosophizing in the Dictatorship: A Current Debate in Arabic-Speaking Philosophy]

Philosophy at the intersection of culture and politics in contemporary Arab discourse

Within the inaugural chapter titled ‘Appropriating and Confiscating Concepts under Dictatorship’, Salah Mosbah, Nadia El-Qurtghemmi, Stiffi Hobuß, and Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab undertake an incisive examination of the intricate dynamics of ‘power relations’ as manifest within hegemonic discourses, whether emanating from official sources or articulated by ‘philosophers’ aligned with distinct (ideological) political orientations. Their discourse centers on the assertion that the appropriation of concepts intertwined with criticism, the reinforcement of democratic principles, and their adaptation within the Arab public sphere can engender objectives that may, paradoxically, run counter to their initial, authentic purposes.

In her insightful article, ‘Enlightenment Debates on the Eve of the Revolution in Egypt and Syria’, Kassab undertakes a critical examination of the multifaceted meanings ascribed to ‘enlightenment’ in the context of Egypt and Syria, spanning from the nineteenth century through to the Arab uprisings of 2011. Central to her argument is the contention that these ongoing dialogues encompassed the defense of rationality, freedom, and human dignity against countervailing currents characterized by backwardness, discrimination, and intolerance.

Notwithstanding, it is noteworthy that the predominant discourse within these debates did not necessarily prioritize a rigorous academic engagement with the intricate interplay between the Arab Renaissance and European modernity, along with its attendant political and social values. Instead, the focus often gravitated toward immediate cultural and societal concerns, without overtly disparaging the prevailing political and social milieu. This held true despite the disparate audiences and objectives in both Egyptian and Syrian societies. Nevertheless, Kassab contends that even though certain marginalized Enlightenment ideals had resonated in Syria and Egypt prior to the Arab uprisings, these notions were presented and explored on a limited scale in the core aspirations of the Arab Spring revolutions. By meticulously dissecting the numerous contextual factors, key actors, defining features, intended recipients, and ensuing challenges inherent to the Enlightenment debates, Kassab compellingly underscores the enduring prevalence of hegemonic themes and stances within these discourses.

In his article titled ‘Challenging Political Tyranny and Religious Tyranny: Some Uses of Rousseau and Spinoza in Contemporary Arab Thought’, Saleh Mosbah astutely delineates the pivotal determinants that wield a substantive influence in shaping the objectives and potential impact associated with the reception and explication of European philosophers in the Arab milieu. Mosbah adeptly categorizes the motivations behind the discourse on certain philosophers into three distinct domains: academic, political, and historical-existential, all framed within the geopolitical and historical context. Furthermore, Mosbah conducts an illuminating comparative analysis between the reception of two eminent figures in contemporary Arab thought: the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677).

It is Mosbah’s contention that despite the resonances between the socio-political landscape of seventeenth-century Europe and the circumstances prevailing in Arab countries during the latter half of the twentieth century, characterized by the entwining of religious and political forces and a marked level of public illiteracy, Spinoza’s philosophical corpus remains marginalized within Arab academic institutions. In stark contrast, Rousseau’s philosophical tenets, which challenge established authorities, be they religious or social, as exemplified in his work ‘Emile or on Education’”, are subjected to meticulous scrutiny within the Arabic academic discourse, albeit, somewhat paradoxically, largely shunning those facets that dissent against prevailing institutions.

Arab women’s rights, despotism, and philosophy

‘Philosophizing in the Dictatorship’ undertakes a rigorous examination of the intricate interplay between the postcolonial nation-state and women’s rights, a theme that permeates several sections of the book. Within the initial part, Nadia El-Qurtghemmi and Stiffi Hobuß, through their article entitled ‘A Linguistic Resignation in the Context of Dictatorship: The Concept of Women’s Rights in Tunisia (1987–2011)’, meticulously evaluate the significance and constraints inherent in the application of concepts pertaining to Tunisian women’s rights and feminism in the post-independence era. This article posits that Tunisian women grapple with the imposition of a dual discourse that often assumes contradictory stances regarding the role and empowerment of women in Tunisian society. This duality manifests through two distinct discourses: one catering to a local audience, which emphasizes the preservation of Arab traditions and family values, and the other, tailored for Western consumption, which portrays Tunisia as an exemplary model in the Arab world, extolling its achievements in women’s empowerment, democracy, and gender equality.

Furthermore, it is paramount to acknowledge that Tunisian women remained subject to the dominion of the official discourse, facilitated by the state’s control over women’s institutions and the official media. Within this overarching narrative, Tunisian women were often portrayed as a defensive bastion against the encroachment of reactionary Islamist movements during President Habib Bourguiba’s era and extremist forces under President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s rule. It is essential to note, however, that such representation did not translate into a genuine freedom of expression for women. This fact is substantiated by the firsthand account of Zineb Ben Said-Cherni, a professor of philosophy at the University of Tunis, in her essay titled ‘The Multiple Faces of Oppression in Tunisia: Testimony of an Activist’s Path’. In these testimonies, a profound exploration of the dynamics of justice and women’s unwavering resistance to subjugation within despotic, conservative societies unfolds.

In these narratives, individuals who ardently champion freedom, pluralism, and equality recount their ordeals of injustice, coupled with instances of physical and psychological torment suffered in detention centers during the tumultuous decades spanning the 1960s to the 1980s. These accounts not only unveil the stark realities of tyranny and inherent contradictions within the political discourse but also shed light on the profound repercussions of tyranny on the very bedrock of values and ethical conduct in conservative societies.

Ben Said-Cherni, a stalwart of left-wing feminism who was detained and subjected to torture, vividly recalls an incident in which her tormentor, while in a cell, offered her a jacket from the floor to shield her modesty. She poignantly reflects, ‘Because of the moral embarrassment caused by the situation I was in, he handed me the jacket that was lying on the ground to cover myself’ (p. 160). This poignant anecdote underscores the complex interplay between personal dignity and the dehumanizing effects of oppressive circumstances.

This ethical quandary is palpably exemplified in the compelling account of Moroccan human rights advocate and writer, Fatna El-Bouih, as articulated in her article titled, ‘My Experience of Injustice: A Woman’s Voice against Silences’. El-Bouih masterfully narrates her personal journey, imbuing her words with a potent blend of resilience and defiance against the authoritarian might of the nation-state and the prevailing colonial perception of Arab Muslim women. Fatna El-Bouih’s narrative deftly encapsulates the dichotomy she grapples with: the indomitable strength and the persistent vulnerability instilled by the traumatic repercussions of physical torture on her psyche. In a society where the regime adroitly wields demeaning rhetoric as a means of controlling and humiliating detainees, particularly women, El-Bouih finds herself ensnared in the web of this pernicious practice. From the very moment of arrest, the accused woman is unjustly vilified, often with degrading labels, regardless of the charges against her.

El-Bouih poignantly underscores this point, writing,

They assail us with innuendos of a sexual nature, at times even overtly. During the holy month of Ramadan, one of my fellow inmates fell victim to sexual assault. The ensuing panic was palpable. Nevertheless, she astutely distinguishes between the violence imposed upon their bodies and the resilience of their spirits, asserting, ‘However, our bodies are subjected to violence, not our souls’ (p. 162).

In the introduction to the second part, Sarah Schmidt and Sarhan Dhouib astutely contend that this process of personal recollection and testimonies operates as a potent form of political agency and engagement. This holds especially true in the crucible of political oppression, during authoritarian regimes, and in moments marked by the profound experience of injustice (p. 95).

Practicing critique and authoritarianism

In his insightful article, ‘Michel Foucault in Tunisia: Commemorating the Student Movement and the Genesis of Contemporary Philosophy’, the researcher Fathi Triki conducts a comprehensive survey of the philosophical and cultural transformations that have unfolded in Tunisia since the 1960s, drawing from the personal recollections of various Arab philosophers. Triki’s intellectual endeavor draws heavily from Michel Foucault’s philosophical framework, particularly in his exploration of how philosophy serves as an instrument for the diagnosis and analysis of reality.

Triki deftly demonstrates that, akin to the ethos espoused in Foucault’s philosophy, communal spaces such as cafes and intellectual salons have evolved into centers of critical praxis, resiliently persisting despite the extensive surveillance that characterized this historical and political context. In this vein, Rachida Triki, an artistic philosopher, offers a compelling discussion on the nexus between artistic creativity and political resistance. She convincingly posits that, drawing inspiration from Paul Valery’s concept of ‘the concept of transgression’, art embodies a mode of practice and training aimed at challenging stagnation and diverse forms of tyranny across various settings. Consequently, the public realm, akin to an art gallery, emerges as a domain for incisive reflection on the political reality, both preceding and following the revolution.

The book further invites contemplation on whether the prisons of the past can be construed as architectural symbols provoking critical retrospection regarding erstwhile societal practices. Dhouib delves into the notion of the ‘topography of injustice’ within the Tunisian context, where sites emblematic of oppression, symbolized by ‘prisons’, stand in stark contrast to sites of enlightenment and cultivation of critical thought, epitomized by the ‘school’, or the conduits for knowledge dissemination such as cultural salons, and so forth. This dichotomy beckons profound reflection on the dynamics of power and resistance within the Tunisian landscape.

In the concluding section of this remarkable work, the authors curate a selection of four thought-provoking articles that artfully interweave personal narratives, illuminating interviews, and meticulous critical analyses. These articles delve deep into the intricate fabric of the contemporary Arab World, casting a keen eye on the multifaceted political and philosophical terrain that characterizes this complex region. By doing so, this collective endeavor brings to light the profound significance of a methodology termed the ‘double critique’.

The ‘double critique’ technique represents a systematic approach to philosophical inquiry within the unique context of the Arab world. It deftly challenges the historical Eurocentric orientation and the inherent biases that have traditionally permeated European philosophy. This approach stands as a testament to the book’s commitment to transcending conventional paradigms and opening up new avenues for philosophical engagement, where diverse voices and perspectives can flourish.

In summary, ‘Philosophy in the Arab Context of Tyranny’ constitutes a notable addition to the intellectual landscape, beckoning to both Arab and European readers who share a vested interest in unraveling the intricate tapestry of modern and contemporary cultural and political dynamics within the Arab world. It serves as an invaluable resource that provides rich and nuanced insights into the interplay between these dynamic forces and the bedrock of Western modern values and philosophies. As such, it emerges as an indispensable companion for those in pursuit of a deeper understanding of the multifaceted and ever-evolving relationship between the Arab world and Western thought.

It is worth noting that Philosophizing in the Dictatorship is the third part of a series titled The Experience of Injustice from a Multicultural Perspective. It was preceded by a book titled Forms of Discourse and Patterns of Silence: Language and Authoritarianism (2018) and Recalling Injustice: Arab and German Perspectives (2021).