Nonprofit perspectives on managing food-insecurity operations during crisis

Abstract

Food insecurity is an international concern. There is a need to address and discuss the challenges of food distribution during times of crisis. This In Perspective paper investigates the vital role of nonprofit organizations when it comes to managing food-insecurity during a pandemic when needs and demands change. Given diverse needs and changing logistical patterns experienced during the pandemic, nonprofits had to alter how offered support to those requiring help in urban areas. This paper positions directions noted in the literature before offering insights from interviews with three nonprofits based in the Phoenix metro area of Arizona in the United States. Findings are organized into two sections: 1. addressing need, and 2. organizational coordination of navigating a crisis. Both sections address challenges that nonprofits saw and faced through the pandemic over the past few years. Noted managerial implications and policy recommendations address the importance of evaluating changing demands and how to manage operations through abrupt transition.

Keywords

crisis management service logistics volunteering food operations need support services

Introduction

Food insecurity was and continues to be a major point of concern globally (Mook et al., 2020). It is important that scholars focus their attention on what is happening in our local communities concerning food and food distribution (Burnett, 2023; Carson, 2014; Lee et al., 2023a, 2023b). Assessing practices locally in our communities leads to better attempts to unify people and to place attention on everyday challenges (Cloke et al., 2017; Wise, 2017), especially when it comes to health and inequality (Bambra et al., 2020). The United States Department of Agriculture defines food insecurity as a limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and those who are food insecure lack the ability to buy such food in a socially acceptable manner (USDA, 2021). To this point, Fiese et al. (2011, 1) note “food insecurity is arguably the most nutrition-related public health problem in the U.S. today.” For decades, the Food and Nutrition Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has been tracking the rate of food insecurity across the United States. Since 1995, despite efforts by various stakeholders, the rate of household food insecurity did not reduce, and recent reports show household food insecurity rates sitting around 12.5% nationally (USDA, 2021).

The purpose of this paper is to offer perspective on how nonprofit organizations managed food-insecurity concerns with their local community. Experiencing a recent time of crisis revolved around the COVID-19 pandemic—which has made us more aware of food inequality and the need to seek solutions locally (Power et al., 2020). Navigating operations during times of a pandemic can be particularly challenging, so focusing on changing and adopting operations is a prompt and topical discussion today (Esmaeilidouki et al., 2023). To do this, a focus on developing an understanding of how nonprofits alter operations is necessary. To navigate change, especially around how organizations tried to situate pre- and post-directives, nonprofit managers faced challenges of making abrupt changes. To frame pre-pandemic, during the pandemic, and the current endemic phases, this paper situates how nonprofits adapted their operations to change. Through interviews, reflective insights into the operational endeavors and changes nonprofits endured over time during the pandemic are presented. Insights offered in this paper come from discussions with nonprofits based in the Phoenix metro area of Arizona. Therefore, this paper offers insights based on experiences of nonprofit leaders and is useful for local policy makers who make decisions and seek methods and alternatives to support food guided programs and initiatives. Recommendations brought forward in this paper offer perspective and directions for nonprofit leaders dealing directly with food-insecurity challenges. It is important to note the challenge of saying “post-COVID” specifically because the virus does remain but is now managed and better controlled. Given we now know more about COVID-19, organizations and event managers have sought to return to pre-pandemic operations (Klöckner et al., 2023; Perić et al., 2021). The paper concludes with recommendations for policy makers to encourage thought around this prompt topic that affects households in our communities.

COVID-19, food insecurity, and assistance

Declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020, and for the last several years, COVID-19 resulted in attendant health challenges, diseases, widespread death, and economic insecurities (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). Challenges associated with the pandemic do persist today. Pertinent to this paper is how COVID-19 brought about unprecedented strain on food insecure households. This also stretched and strained the capacity of what agencies such as the food banks, pantries or soup kitchens could supply and deliver to those who were most vulnerable and in the greatest need (Ziliak, 2021). Even before the pandemic, food banks struggled with meeting demand (Iafrati, 2018; Lambie-Mumford, 2019; Loopstra, 2018; MacLeod et al., 2019), and the strain of the pandemic added additional pressures on organizations and nonprofits seeking to assist community members experiencing food insecurity (Lee et al., 2023a) due to increasing experiences of inequality (Blundell et al., 2020).

Demand for food help rose to levels comparable to the depression period of the 1920s (Gershon, 2020), and the great recession (Ziliak, 2021). It was reported that cars stretched around food banks and figures show as high as one in eight families across the nation sought help for food by December 2020 (see Wetter et al., 2021). The pandemic lockdown worsened the situation, as food supplies ran low due to people wishing to stock-up, limiting what food banks could get to support the most vulnerable households (Bertmann et al., 2021). During the pandemic supply chains were significantly disrupted, calling into question how robust supply and communication lines could be during a severe pandemic (Baz and Ruel, 2021). Numerous challenges arose, as meat packing plants saw virus outbreaks, farmers struggled to hire help, which disrupted supply chains resulting in a lower availability of foods to buy at stores, nonetheless food banks (Rector, 2020).

Niles et al. (2021) conducted a multi-site survey across the United States to evaluate the impact of food insecurity, confirming the acceleration of need during the pandemic. In nearly all study sites, there is a higher prevalence of food insecurity among black, indigenous, and people of color, households with children, and those with job disruptions (Niles et al., 2021). It has been reported that as high as four in ten Americans visited a food bank for the first time, and 80% of these food banks were stretched, trying to serve more people than they did a year prior (Winke, 2020).

In conjunction with other sectors of the economy, the United States Federal government set up programs to address COVID-19 and food insecurity. The “Farmers to Families Food Box Program” was one such endeavor. Under the auspices of the USDA, foods such as milk, meats, fresh produce, and eggs were bought directly from farmers, manufacturers, and distributors. These food items were then boxed up and shipped directly to food banks across the country (Blackmon et al., 2021). The Supplemental Assistance Nutrition Program (SNAP) administered by the USDA is the nation’s largest nutrition assistance program for families during times of economic hardship. They are also regarded as a nutrition stabilizer for lower-income individuals and households with a budget of over $75b annually, and according to Lee et al. (2022), SNAP helped reduce food insecurity in areas where they held a strong presence.

Another program offering support is the National School Breakfast & Lunch Program in schools to provide free breakfast and lunch for children. Qualifications for these programs were relaxed, and students could also take food packs home over weekends. The Cares Act was another attempt to provide emergency support, authorizing payments of $1200 to individuals, $2400 to married couples and up to $500 for qualified dependents based on household income. Lai et al. (2021) found a significant amount of the financial stimulus disbursement went towards essential food and shelter needs. Another example was the Paycheck Protection Program administered by the U.S. Small Business Administration offered loans for qualified small business owners U.S. Small Business Administration (2021). Researchers continue to track the impact of these programs to evaluate how government sponsored programs seek to reduce food insecurity (see Hamel and Harman, 2023; Wang and Kang, 2023).

A note on research approach

To understand changing operations through the phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, a qualitative approach was appropriate so the researchers could offer depth into these matters. Questions were organized around four themes: who is in need; staff and volunteers; overall impact the ability to effectively organize and offer efficient service delivery; and organizational directions based on how to move through phases of a crisis.

Questions were categorized based on directions analyzed from the literature, organized around for directional themes. Questions over equity have long been the focus of supporting those most in need, or most vulnerable (Mahmoudi et al., 2022), especially since control aspects were challenged and thus needed attention to offer maximum support (Makhunga et al., 2019). This first theme was necessary so to offer foundational context surrounding how nonprofit leaders interviewed for this study worked to support those most impacted by a lack of supply. Managing people is essential for nonprofit organizations to ensure operations ran efficiently and effectively (Gonzalez-Torre et al., 2017). Thus, the second theme concerning staff and volunteers was pressing for all organizations, both for profit and nonprofit related organizations (Guo et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2021). The National Council of Nonprofits saw the recruitment of people as one of the most pressing challenges during the pandemic. Distribution management is an important aspect of the next theme observed in the literature. Uncertainty leads to changing processes, especially regarding how to get supplies to those most in need (Fianu and Davis, 2018). Facility planning is also an important part of organizational coordination (Esmaeilidouki et al., 2023). The literature acknowledged here frames the importance of focusing on the themes addressed in the development of the questions for this research. Appendix A lists the questions asked in this study. This paper now turns to the findings and discussion.

Interviews were conducted with four senior executives representing three different nonprofit organizations. Relating back to the purpose of this work, these interviews delve into COVID-19’s impact on food insecurity focused organizations. All nonprofits are based in the Phoenix metro area in Arizona. One nonprofit is an independent conventional food bank that operates three sites. Another is a conventional food bank that works as part of a subsidiary group working under the umbrella of a local hospital network. The other is a nonprofit organization that sources for and picks up all the left-over untouched gourmet food at specific events and restaurants (this nonprofit coordinates locally, but also has operations around the nation). Regarding the interviewees, they take on various leadership roles in their nonprofit organizations, including a community resources manager, donor and volunteer relations manager, founder, and Chief Executive Officer. All interviews were conducted in October 2023. Names of individuals and the nonprofits are not mentioned in the paper to ensure anonymity. The findings and discussion focused on emerged insights.

Findings and discussion

From the interviews with nonprofit leaders, discussed here are insights and directions offered are categorized into two topically relevant subsections: 1. addressing need; and 2. organizational coordination of navigating a crisis). The first subtheme turns to the complexity of supporting those most in need when supplies and resources are limited during a time of crisis.

Addressing need

Regarding whom is in need, each organization experienced a huge dip in the number of clients served. Much of this was because the Federal Government’s financial assistance to households during the pandemic called the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act had relaxed requirements concerning Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) eligibility for households and individuals addressing food insecurity (Lai et al., 2021). In some regards, the opposite happened. It was expected that an undersupply would cause food pantries to provide less, but restricted mobility guidelines caused most households to be less dependent on food pantries. All these federal government incentives played a significant role in addressing food insecurity among those that were dependent on the services provided by food banks and food pantries.

One organization reported that before the COVID-19 pandemic they served about 400–500 clients a week. This number dropped to about 40% at the peak of the pandemic (2021), but it is now back up and about 48% above the 2021 numbers in 2022. They noticed demand in 2023 was about 40% higher than 2022. They also report that they are seeing more client numbers daily in more recent times than they have ever seen; with the 55+ being the largest demographic (37%) they are attending to, with inflation hitting those hard that are on a fixed income according to my FFB interviewees. Another experienced a similar drop from about 250 to 300 clients per day compared to 50 to 80 per day in the same period. “That wasn’t just our experience but that of other food banks that I talked to” the interviewee mentioned. An observation here is emergency programs went into place for the pandemic, but as times get better, this creates more challenges for food pantries because demand can spike as assistance phases out, and this can be difficult to manage.

The nonprofits interviewed reported declines in their grocery pick up from grocery stores but the increase in financial donations made a difference which enabled them to get food from their suppliers. One organization uses a program to track data and supply, another uses a customer relations management software to track its data. Both conventional food banks reported an increase in financial donations from the public at the peak of the pandemic. As the pandemic became more manageable, supply chain disruptions caused about a 40% decrease in procurement capabilities and food donations from grocery stores (also known as grocery rescue). Though grocery rescue was a major source of supply for the conventional food bank, one nonprofit mentioned they experienced a shift that evened out their shortfall. Restaurants, food manufactures, and other food outlets began donating their inventory because of the shift of supply and demand due to stay-in-place orders. Early in the pandemic, consumers were not buying as much food from restaurants and hotels, so food pantries saw increases in donations.

An interviewee reported a significant increase in need happened in early 2023, particularly after government supported programs lapsed, inflation increased, and the costs of living raised. One interviewee mentioned “most of the first-time visitors we are noticing are seniors (60+ years) who are on fixed income.” They corroborated this fact by relating it to the Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP) which is a food box program for seniors that food pantries participate in. Participants in that program have doubled from about 200–250 to about 550 participants using a software tracking system through the Department of Economic Security (DES).

The school breakfast and lunch program for children was part of a strategy promoted by the USDA. Some districts saw food provided for each child in the household Monday through Friday and gave out food packs to take home over the weekend. This program played a significant role in mitigating food insecurity among households who otherwise would have been without enough meals, as mentioned by one interviewee:

“Though not in Arizona, some school districts were even making supper, small dinner packs to take home for families. That was because the summer school food service program was extended year-round, [and] a lot of districts adopted the universal school meal program because of the impact that it had on addressing childhood hunger.”

This same interviewee added a point about a significant different observed: “I talked to a senior who when the SNAP program ended went from receiving $260 per month to $26 a month.” Other strategies to obtain more food were grocery stores and home food-delivery services.

As stated above, one of the nonprofits had to re-purpose untouched left-over gourmet food from events and restaurants across the country. Since the events were prescribed by the CDC, the clients that were reaching out to the nonprofits CEO were gig workers, gaffers, forklift drivers, lighting technicians, and sound technicians who knew about repurposing gourmet food programs. After the eighth call on the second day of the lockdown, the CEO realized what was happening. These individuals were experiencing food insecurity and were reaching out to get food assistance for themselves and their families. All were independent contractors who were issued 1099 and as such could not afford certain benefits including insurance, and some “were living in their cars.” To combat this need, drive-throughs were established in parking lots of some Arizona restaurants to support these workers.

Nonprofit representatives mentioned most of what they receive are canned or dry goods. The nonprofits then supply to other organizations that cater to the food insecure. It was mentioned that during the pandemic fresh produce was a rarity. As events (e.g., shows or concerts) became regular occurrences again, like in pre-pandemic times, gourmet foods are now available and nonprofit receive these foods and then distribute to the food insecure, and this can include fresh and freshly cooked foods opposed to an over-abundance of canned or dry foods.

All three organizations noticed an increase in the number of seniors requiring support. This was something commonly pointed out in the literature in recent years as seniors with set incomes are becoming first-time clients as prices rise (see Ziliak, 2021). One nonprofit representative indicated “the lower middle class are beginning to creep in there too.” Two of the nonprofits who noticed declines in client numbers at the peak of the pandemic for reasons mentioned earlier, but another experienced an increase. This organization was one of the reasons the others experienced a dip. They organized over 20,000 meals for students whose schools were shut down. Their kitchen staff were willing to cook meals for children if the groceries and necessary ingredients were available. These nonprofit sourced foods and were able to positively affect wellbeing and reduce food-insecurity rates in their community.

Organizational coordination of navigating crisis

One of the main logistical challenges during the pandemic was managing staff and volunteers. Interviewees noted many volunteers at conventional food banks are retired individuals over the age of 65. One of the nonprofits has 305 volunteers who work at their three different sites. Some volunteers also work from home in different capacities (such as grant writers who help nonprofits). Most volunteers were retired individuals managed by a staff of 11 people (6 full-time and 5 part-time). One participant mentioned all but a few of their volunteers returned to the nonprofit as the pandemic lessened. One of the nonprofit leaders mentioned they lost their volunteer crew due to strict hospital policy guidelines, another nonprofit had to reduce to one-third of their volunteer staff (from 305 to about 98). This organization had a staff of 12 people playing a number of supporting roles for the 75 volunteers. To help fill shortages, the Governor’s office in Arizona dispatched the National Guard to support statewide food bank operations (Curtis, 2020). Despite the challenges of the pandemic, none of the organizations laid off their paid staff, which differs from other industries (Wetter et al., 2021).

The overall impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on different sectors abruptly changed their organizational mission. Those that are in the food-insecurity space, like the nonprofits interviewed, felt an immediate impact of the lockdown since popular events and restaurants were temporarily shut down. One CEO said:

“we had no gourmet food to pick up from these events to pass on to the various organizations and individuals that depended on us. There was nothing. I got several calls from ancillary workers such as forklift drivers, stage helpers and so on who put on these concerts together begging for food.”

As Kulish (2020) reports, abrupt changes overwhelm people. Prior to the pandemic, two of the conventional food bank executives interviewed used to have a client’s choice operation. This is where clients could pick up what they wanted from the food inventory based upon dietary preference and cultural needs. With the CDC social distancing guidelines, gloves, and face-mask requirements, they changed their approach to boxing up the food. All three organizations embarked on drive-throughs to deliver their food items and groceries to their respective clients. One also engaged in mobile distribution to the elderly and home-bound, and made deliveries at doctors’ offices, vaccination sites, and job sites for frontline workers. Organizations that were still able to work with their volunteers did so as “tie-teams.” These were volunteer groups that worked well together and were comfortable with working with each other despite the on-going pandemic.

In terms of navigating through these times of crisis, the Federally funded programs were organized to support farmers to provide fresher and nutrient-dense food for the public. Though the intent of the program was noble, it received criticism due to logistical challenges seen by Blackmon et al. (2021). Some of these problems included how food was boxed for distribution. Items not meant for the same box were packed together, and food that needed refrigeration were mixed with foods that did not (in several instances pallets with milk and dairy were dropped at locations with no refrigeration). This all resulted in added food waste.

Interviewees were asked about logistical challenges and a dependency on government programs. Levels of support for these programs did change during the pandemic, one mentioned:

“it looks like the system has been designed in a way that the government should play a role in it because the food system is so large. The government must play a role in it to ensure that those who need the food get it under emergency situations such as COVID-19 and not depend on individuals and companies to get the food to the needy. What I saw was that we solved the problem of food insecurity for a little bit because people were getting a living income through the stimulus checks.”

Lai et al. (2021) found that recipients of the economic impact payment (EIP), also known as stimulus checks, planned to spend this money on basic needs like food and shelter. The stimulus checks put a halt dent on people’s dependency on food banks or food pantries according to those interviewed. Nonprofit leaders spoke to sustainable solutions to the problem of food insecurity. One mentioned:

“[some] states are adopting alternatives like the universal food program permanently. I hear that there are either cities or organizations trying to adopt the universal income type program because it impacts households so much.”

According to the same interviewee, their opinion of the food support system is it creates dependence. A system wherein there are winners and losers, beneficiaries, and benefactors. Some argue that the latter, the benefactors, reap the economic benefits and accolades for their magnanimity. Two of the nonprofits took part in Federally funded food programs to support operations and meet their social mandate. Two interviewees thought they did the best they could under the circumstances because they had a dedicated crew of retired volunteers and board members. Knowing what they know now they felt they could have acted quicker in their strategies when it came to food procurement and mobile distribution.

Another consideration brought up was hours of operation. Two organizations changed their hours of operation to shorter periods to accommodate their staff and to help them avoid burnout. Both organizations showed that they are much more efficient now with the shorter hours of operation. The representative from the other nonprofit said:

“the pandemic was like nothing anybody prepared for or fore-saw coming. In retrospect, supporting each other mentally and emotionally was and is important moving forward. Most people were impacted directly or indirectly. It was a stressful period for most. I think we could have adjusted our hours of operation to take care of ourselves and not remain open for 5 days a week probably”.

One of the nonprofits offered a response to their views on people’s dependency on government food programs at various stages of the pandemic. They mention:

“there is just too much fat there. I believe in sustainability. We work 7 days a week and did not have to adjust our hours. In retrospect some of the things we could have done differently include: 1. be aware that there are resources that all could take advantage of; 2. there are strategic partners that one could collaborate with; 3. learn to say ‘no’ because we can’t do it all; 4. whatever we do, do it well; and 5. know how to get more volunteers aboard.”

These considerations are addressed throughout this paper offer a segue into practical implications and policy considerations aimed to helping nonprofits manage operations during times of crisis.

Conclusions, implications, and recommendations

The reactions and lessons offered in this article offer a chance to learn from the experiences of nonprofits addressing food insecurity. These offer a glimpse into how they adopted their operations, and insights are useful should leaders face a future crisis. Each of the executives interviewed expressed similar outcomes surrounding government interventions to mitigate the effect of the pandemic on beneficiaries who receive their social services. Before the government interventions, the demand for food banks and pantries was high, and these places saw long lines of people in need. Once the interventions took effect, food lines dropped according to each of the interviewees. Their findings speak to patterns seen in the articles referenced in this perspective paper.

Many localities have households that are perpetually dependent on food banks and pantries for their nutritional intake, and this creates a management program that seeks out homes with the most need. Supporting those who are food insecure is not a one size fits all. An approach that works for one person may not work for the next person. It is therefore important that vulnerable members of the population are not further disadvantaged during public health emergencies by making adequate provisions like building an access ramp for a wheelchair user to reach the same destination as anybody else. As there is no one-size-fits-all approach, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Each food distribution site must make conscious efforts to accommodate the vulnerable among. The conventional method of standing in line, first come first serve method may be a protocol that needs to stop to care for the most vulnerable.

Times of crisis offer a new realization of how widespread food insecurity is, and the importance of seeking ways to manage it. But nonprofits still look to overcome challenges presented and play a part in the distribution of food to those in need. Recommendations for the policy makers include the need to make the Paycheck Protection Program and Stimulus money an annual fixture in the lives of the marginalized and underserved minority populations as inflation effects on costs of food and everyday living. It would also be beneficial to dedicate funds to support nonprofits and charities that deal with food insecurity to ease dependence on government programs (Gibbons, 2022). More relaxed eligibility requirements for all needy households and seniors can lessen dependence on needing food support services, and supporting and funding school breakfast and lunch school programs could be made permanent as the pandemic era closes. The pandemic brought new hardships in the realm of food insecurity. This paper encourages researchers to work with nonprofits to reflect on changing strategies and operations through times of and coming out of times of crisis. This will help with situating social and public policies for addressing need without spontaneous reactions or rushed decision-making so that people do not see abrupt changes when it comes to the ability and availability of accessing food.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Nicholas Wise

Appendix

References

Bambra

Riordan

Ford

, et al. (2020) The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 74(11): 964–968.

Baz

Ruel

(2021) Can supply chain risk management practices mitigate the disruption impacts on supply chains’ resilience and robustness? Evidence from an empirical survey in a COVID-19 outbreak era. International Journal of Production Economics 233: 107972.

Bertmann

Rogomentich

Belarmino

, et al. (2021) The Food Bank and Food Pantries Help Food Insecure Participants Maintain Fruit and Vegetable Intake During COVID-19. Frontiers in Nutrition 8(673158). DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.673158.

Blackmon

Chan

Carbral

, et al. (2021) Rapid development of a decision support system to alleviate food insecurity at the Los Angeles regional food bank amid the COVID‐19 pandemic. Production and Operations Management 30(10): 3391–3407.

Blundell

Costa Dias

Joyce

, et al. (2020) COVID‐19 and inequalities. Fiscal Studies 41(2): 291–319.

Burnett

(2023) Coopetition outside the market economy: Oxfordshire’s community food initiatives as a case study. Local Economy: The Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit 38(1): 61–79.

Carson

(2014) Canadian food banks and the depoliticization of food insecurity at the individual and community levels. Canadian Review of Social Policy 70: 7–21.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) CDC’s Global Impact: Responding to COVID-19 Around the World. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/covid-19/index.html#:∼:text=CDC_researchers_collaborated_with_global,COVID%2D19%2Drelated_deaths (accessed on 4 March 2024).

Cloke

May

Williams

(2017) The geographies of food banks in the meantime. Progress in Human Geography 41: 703–726.

10.

Curtis

(2020) Arizona National Guard Helping Pack Food at Valley Food Banks. Phoenix, AZ: AZCentral. 25 March 2020. Available at: https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona/2020/03/26/arizona-national-guard-packing-food-help-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/5080521002/ (accessed on 4 March 2024).

11.

Esmaeilidouki

Rambe

Ardestani-Jaafari

, et al. (2023) Food bank operations: review of operation research methods and challenges during COVID-19. BMC Public Health 23: 1783.

12.

Fianu

Davis

(2018) A Markov decision process model for equitable distribution of supplies under uncertainty. European Journal of Operational Research 264(3): 1101–1115.

13.

Fiese

Gundersen

Koester

, et al. (2011) Household food insecurity: serious concerns for child development and commentaries. Social Policy Report 25(3): 1–27.

14.

Gershon

(2020) One parallel for the coronavirus crisis? The great depression. JSTOR Daily 20 May 2020. Available at: https://daily.jstor.org/one-parallel-for-the-coronavirus-crisis-the-great-depression/ (accessed on 4 March 2024).

15.

Gibbons

(2022) Show me the money: addressing the oversight gap in private foundation donations to donor-advised funds. Minnesota Law Review 106(3): 1583–1623.

16.

Gonzalez-Torre

Lozano

Adenso-Díaz

(2017) Efficiency analysis of the European food banks: some managerial results. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 28(2): 822–838.

17.

Guo

Brown

Ashcraft

, et al. (2011) Strategic human resources management in nonprofit organizations. Review of Public Personnel Administration 31(3): 248–269.

18.

Hamel

Harman

(2023) Can government investment in food pantries decrease food insecurity? Food Policy 121: 102541.

19.

Iafrati

(2018) “We’re not a bottomless pit”: food banks’ capacity to sustainably meet increasing demand. Voluntary Sector Review 9: 39–53.

20.

Klöckner

Schmidt

Wagner

, et al. (2023) Firms’ responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Research 158: 113664.

21.

Kulish

(2020) ‘Never seen anything like it’: cars line up for miles at food banks. The New York Times 8 April 2020. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/business/economy/coronavirus-food-banks.html (accessed on 4 March 2024).

22.

Lai

Morgan

Kassas

, et al. (2021) Spending of economic stimulus payments and changes in food purchasing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Choices: The Magazine of Food, Farm & Resource Issues 25: 1–8.

23.

Lambie-Mumford

(2019) The growth of food banks in Britain and what they mean for social policy. Critical Social Policy 39(1): 3–22.

24.

Lee

Bassam

ERW

Kuhn

(2021) Community-oriented actions by food retailers to support community well-being: a systematic scoping review. Public Health 201: 115–124.

25.

Lee

Bhargava

Smith

, et al. (2022) The effects of aging services and the supplemental nutrition assistance program on food insecurity among older Georgians: 2018–2020. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 44(2): 635–652.

26.

Lee

Coulson

Hackett

(2023a) The social practices of food bank volunteer work. Social Policy and Society 22(3): 408–425.

27.

Lee

Graham

Croft

, et al. (2023b) Food bank practices, local development and the potential of community wealth building and universal basic services in the UK. Local Economy: The Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit 38(1): 22–41.

28.

Loopstra

(2018) Rising food bank use in the UK: sign of a new public health emergency? Nutrition Bulletin 43(1): 53–60.

29.

MacLeod

Curl

Kearns

(2019) Understanding the prevalence and drivers of food bank use: evidence from deprived communities in Glasgow. Social Policy and Society 18(1): 67–86.

30.

Mahmoudi

Shirzad

Verter

(2022) Decision support models for managing food aid supply chains: a systematic literature review. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 82(B): 101255.

31.

Makhunga

Mashamba-Thompson

Hlongwa

, et al. (2019) Evidence on food control in charitable food assistance programs: a systematic scoping review. Systematic Reviews 8(1): 240–248.

32.

Mook

Murdock

Gundersen

(2020) Food banking and food insecurity in high-income countries. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 31: 833–840.

33.

Niles

Beavers

Clay

, et al. (2021) A multi-site analysis of the prevalence of food insecurity in the United States, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Developments in Nutrition 5(12): nzab135.

34.

Perić

Wise

Heydari

, et al. (2021) Getting back to the event: COVID-19, attendance and perceived importance of protective measures. Kinesiology 53(1): 12–19.

35.

Power

Doherty

Pybus

, et al. (2020) How COVID-19 has exposed inequalities in the UK food system: the case of UK food and poverty. Emerald Open Research 2(11): 11. DOI: 10.35241/emeraldopenres.13539.2.

36.

U.S. Small Business Administration (2021) PPP loan forgiveness: borrowers may be eligible for Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) loan forgiveness. Available at: https://www.sba.gov/funding-programs/loans/covid-19-relief-options/paycheck-protection-program/ppp-loan-forgiveness#:∼:text=in_other_languages-,First_Draw_PPP_Loan_forgiveness_terms,and_0other_eligible_expenses%2C_ (accessed on 4 March 2024).

37.

USDA (2021) Key Statistics & Graphics. Washington, DC: USDA. Available at: https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u-s/key-statistics-graphics/ (accessed on 4 March 2024).

38.

Wang

Kang

(2023) Small businesses and government assistance during COVID-19: evidence from the paycheck protection program in the U.S. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 55(8): 2147–2165.

39.

Wetter

Hodge

Carey

(2021) Ethical allocation of scarce food resources during public health emergencies. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics: A Journal of the American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics 49(1): 132–138.

40.

Winke

(2020) Food banks have had a record year. Here’s what it’s like to run one. Available at: https://www.vox.com/22195543/food-bank-coronavirus-texas-donate (accessed on 4 March 2024).

41.

Wise

(2017) Local community and local economy: place, policies and power at the micro-scale. Local Economy: The Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit 32(7): 595–600.

42.

Ziliak

(2021) Food hardship during the COVID‐19 pandemic and great recession. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 43(1): 132–152.