Abstract
Jessica Emami’s Social Media Victimisation: Theories and Impacts of Cyberpunishment offers a theoretical explanation to many of the questions which arise when trying to understand why people do what they do on social media, and why we need to be concerned with the growing trend in ‘cyberpunishment’. Embedding her arguments in Terror Management Theory (TMT) and Quest for Significance Theory (QST), Emami explores these psychological explanations as to why individuals engage in certain behaviours online, which they might not necessarily do in the physical world. She applies these theories to online behaviours which are often not noted when discussing online ‘harms’. Most notably, cancel culture and its use to punish people online to enforce another’s ‘own moral beliefs and social norms’ (p. 3).
The introductory chapter provides a strong setting for later arguments made in the book, exploring and setting out the advancements of digital media and its importance in human connection. This human connection is something that still underpins modern digital media today. However, as noted by Emami, ‘[b]oth the technology and the policy landscape and regulatory environment surrounding the technology were far less complex than it is today’ (p. XVI). Such ease of access to new forms of communication has led to the blurring of the public and private domain and, in turn, the rise in the use of social media to ‘punish’ another.
Chapter 1 focuses on the use of social media to cancel another. A ‘harm’ not often discussed and is used throughout the book to showcase how different ‘harms’ can result in cancellation. So why then are people cancelled online and if such consequences do exist, why do people continue to post comments which may result in ‘social death’ (p. 1)? For Emami, this can be easily explained. We punish people online for behaviour society deems morally unacceptable, while people continue to post controversial comments for acknowledgement (TMT) and affirmation (QST), with its results often seeping from the online world into the physical world.
Chapter 2 proceeds to explore this interconnection between the offline and online world further, with Emami correctly noting: ‘What occurs online has a direct impact on the quality of our physical lives’ (p. 23). To illustrate this point, Emami makes use of several examples, including the Christchurch attacks in New Zealand (2017), to highlight to the reader why we cannot distinguish between the digital world and the physical world. This theme is maintained throughout Chapter 3 as the author moves on to explore the importance of context: an important element of any social interaction which is often lost on social media. For instance, Emami uses the example of a 25-second clip which was actively shared across social media platforms and news sites, to condemn the actions of several (White) Catholic schoolboys for what was labelled as a racist interaction between the boys and an African American man in January 2019.
The events of this day led to headlines around the world condemning the actions of the schoolboys in the clip, where the physical and digital worlds collided. The phone number for the school which the boys attended was leaked online; those involved in the events were subjected to horrific online abuse; and campaigns were run to have the boys punished by the Pope. However, as outlined by Emami, this video was in fact false. The 25-second clip was taken from a 1:46-hour video which told a very different story – bringing to life the context of the altercation but by which point, the boys had been heavily punished online.
Chapter 4 goes on to explore the exploitation of others online. This once again provides proof that the online world cannot be separated from the physical world, in which Emami uses Goffman’s ‘backstage’ and ‘frontstage’ theory to explain why individuals are oblivious to ‘red flags’ online (p. 49). Put simply, online users only share what they want others to see, known as the ‘frontstage’, with the ‘backstage’ element often appearing too late. As in other chapters, Emami employs a case study to illustrate her point – the tragic death of Professor James Aune. The exploration of this case is done with dignity, with Emami highlighting why even those who can be considered highly intelligent become victims of cruel online actions. Emami concludes the chapter by emphasising the importance of education in tackling this online misdemeanour, though further explanation would have proven helpful. For instance, it explores how education, through psychological theory, can reduce the likelihood of others becoming victims of such behaviour in the future.
Chapter 5 turns to examine the blurring of news and fact. Emami discusses how traditional journalism has changed, in which it is no longer easy to distinguish between content created by trained journalists and content created by others, using James O’Keefe as an example. The lack of a distinction between journalism and content creators has resulted in the rise of fake news online. The difference between the two is of great importance, as countries across the globe turn to regulate the online world, with journalistic material often being excluded from these provisions, such as the United Kingdom’s Online Safety Bill 2022 and Germany’s NetzDG. However, as noted by Emami ‘objectivity and truth are being altered’ (p. 66), and the distinction between journalistic material and opinion is not easily identifiable in the digital world. The effect of fake news is felt across the globe with Emami providing ample examples of the dangers of such information online throughout Chapter 5.
The themes of the book are drawn to a close in the conclusion chapter with Emami once again reaffirming the merging of the digital and physical world. Each chapter looks at a distinct area of concern, but Emami draws them together with ease. Emami also highlights at points throughout the book the role of social media platforms in helping to generate and spread the ‘harms’ associated with the online world. Ultimately, these platforms are businesses and controversy increases usership. In turn, more money is generated. A key example is the recent move by Elon Musk to rebrand Twitter as X, following a decline in revenue. Yet, though touched upon in places, Emami could have explored this more, particularly given the increase in businesses using psychology to influence consumer behaviour.
Emami’s work provides a thought-provoking exploration of many of the ‘harms’ associated with the online world, which are not often discussed, while also trying to embed these ‘harms’ in human behaviour. This is a fascinating contribution to our knowledge of the online world. I would recommend anyone interested in social media usage more generally to read it, with Emami’s work providing a significant contribution to any psychology, criminology or legal course which touches upon social media.
