Few studies have addressed the modifications in visual information processing brought about by taking hypnotic substances. The present experiment with healthy subjects investigated the residual effects of taking a single night-time dose of hypnotics on collision anticipation capacities the next morning. Visual sequences simulated the movement of a driver approaching an intersection where another vehicle was arriving. Ten participants had to estimate, as quickly as possible, whether the other vehicle would arrive before or after them at the intersection. They were tested after having taken a capsule of zolpidem (10 mg), zopiclone (7.5 mg), flunitrazepam (1 mg) or a placebo. The results show no residual effects of the molecules. Only flunitrazepam, a benzodiazepine with a long half-life, appears to cause subjects to focus their attention on an element which, while relevant for the task (a road sign playing the role of a spatial reference), is not used correctly.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allain H, Patat A, Lieury A, Le Coz F, Janus C, Menard G, Gandon J M (1995) Comparative study of the effects of zopiclone (7.5 mg), zolpidem, flunitrazepam and a placebo on noctural cognitive performance in healthy subjects, in relation to pharmacokinetics . Eur Psychiatry10 (Suppl 3): 129S-135S
2.
Allen D, Curren H V, Lader M (1991) The effects of repeated doses of clomipramine and alprazolam on physiological performance and cognitive functions in normal subjects . Eur J Clin Pharmacol40: 355-362
3.
Arditti J, Bourdon J H, David J M, Lanze L, Thirion X, Jouglard J (1993) Imprégnation en benzodiazépines de conducteurs impliqués dans des accidents de la circulation . La presse médicale22: 765-766
4.
Barbone F, MacMahon A, Davey P, Morris A, Reid I, MacDevitt D, MacDonald T (1998) Association of road-traffic accidents with benzodiazepine use . Lancet352: 1331-1336
5.
Benzodiazepines/Driving Collaborative Group (1993) Are benzodiazepines a risk factor for road accidents? Drug Alcohol Depend33: 19-22
6.
Berthelon C, Mestre D, Taramino R (1995) Anticipation visuelle de collisions en situations simulées: effets de l'expérience de la conduite . Le Travail Humain58: 311-338
7.
Berthelon C, Mestre D, Pottier A, Pons R (1998) Is visual Anticipation of Collision during self-motion related to perceptual style? Acta Psychologica98: 1-16
8.
Berthelon C, Mestre D, Nachtergaële C (1999) Road environment and visual anticipation of a collision during self-motion. In Gale A G (ed), Brown I D, Haslegrave C M, Taylor S P (co-eds), pp. 355-371. Vision in vehicle VII. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
9.
Billiard M, Besset M, de Lustrac C, Brissaud L (1987) Dose response effects of zopiclone on night sleep and daytime functionning . Sleep10 (Suppl 1): 27-34
10.
Blois R (1997) Effects des médicaments psychotropes sur la vigilance chez l'homme . Confrontations psychiatriques38: 179-211
11.
Blouin J, Vercher J-L, Gauthier G M, Labrousse L, Simoneau M (1999) Updating visual space when rotating the head during whole-body displacements. In Gale A G (ed), Brown I D, Haslegrave C M, Taylor S P (co-eds), pp. 329-344. Vision in vehicle VII. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
12.
Bocca M L (2000) Effets résiduels des hypnotiques sur la conduite automobile en situation simulée. Thèse de Sciences, Université Paris XI, Orsay
13.
Bocca M L, Le Doze F, Etard O, Pottier M, L'Hoste J, Denise P (1999) Residual effects of zolpidem 10 mg and zopiclone 7.5 mg vs. flunitrazepam 1 mg and placebo on driving performance and ocular saccades . Psychopharmacology143: 373-379
14.
Bond A J, Lader M H (1975) Residual effects of flunitrazepam . Br J Clin Pharmacol2: 143-150
15.
Bonnet C (1986) Manuel pratique de psychophysique. Armand Colin, Paris
16.
Borbely A A (1984) Ambulatory motor activity monitoring to study the time course of hypnotic action . Br J Clin Pharmacol18 (Suppl 1): 83S-86S
17.
Breckenridge R L, Dodd M O (1991) Locus of control and alcohol placebo effects on performance in a driving simulator . Perceptual Motor Skills72: 751-756
18.
Broadhurst A, Cushnaghan R C (1987) Residual effects of zopiclone (Imovane) . Sleep10: 48-53
19.
Brookhuis K (1998) How to measure driving ability under the influence of alcohol and drugs, and why . Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp13: S64-S69
20.
Cavallo V, Mestre D, Berthelon C (1997) Time-to-collision judgments: visual and spatio-temporal factors. In Rothengatter J A, Carbonell Vaya E J (eds), Traffic and transport psychology: theory and application, pp. 97-112. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
21.
De Gier J J (1995) Estimation of psychotropic drugs secondary effects on the vigilance. In Vallet M, Kardi S (eds), Vigilance et transport. Aspects fondamentaux, dégradation et prévention, pp. 101-110. Presses Universitaires de Lyon, Lyon
22.
Etard O, Denise P, Pottier M, Gauriat P, Durand C, L'hoste J (1995) Effets résiduels et interaction avec l'alcool d'une prise unique de 10 mg de zolpidem évalués sur simulateur de conduite. In Vallet M, Kardi S (eds), Vigilance et transport. Aspects fondamentaux, dégradation et prévention, pp. 163-171. Presses Universitaires de Lyon, Lyon
23.
Fairweather D B, Kerr J S, Hindmarch I (1992) The effects of accute and repeated doses of zolpidem on subjective sleep, psychomotor performance and cognitive function in elderly volunteers . Eur J Clin Pharmacol43: 597-601
24.
Fernandez C, Martin C, Gimenez F, Farinotti R (1995) Clinical pharmacokinetics of zopiclone . Clin Pharmacokinet29: 431-441
25.
Fillmore M T, Vogel-Sprott M (1995) Expectancies about alcohol-induced motor impairment predict individual differences in responses to alcohol and placebo . J Studies Alcohol56: 90-98
26.
Girre G, Facy F, Lagier G, Dally S (1988) Présence de benzodiazépines dans le sérum de sujets accidentés . La Presse Médicale22: 1135-1138
27.
Hajak G, Clarenbach P, Fischer W, Haase W, Rüther E (1994) Zopiclone improves sleep quality and daytime well-being in insomniac patients: comparison with triazolam, flunitrazepam and placebo . Int Clin Psychopharmacol9: 251-261
28.
Harrison C, Subhan Z, Hindmarch I (1985) Residual effects of zopiclone and benzodiazepine hypnotics on psychomotor performance related to car driving . Drugs Exp Clin Res11: 823-829
29.
Hindmarch I, Clyde CA (1980) Effects of triazolam and nitrazepam on sleep quality, morning vigilance and psychomotor performance . Drug Res30: 1163-1166
30.
Hindmarch I, Kern J S (1992) Behavioural toxicity of antidepressants with particular reference to moclobemide . Psychopharmacology106: 49-55
31.
Irving A, Jones W (1992) Methods for testing impairment of driving due to drugs . Eur J Clin Pharmacol43: 61-66
32.
Lader M, Melhuist A, Harris E (1982) Residual effects of repeated doses of 0.5 and 1 mg flunitrazepam . Eur J Clin Pharmacol23: 135-140
33.
Laurell H, Tornros J (1991) Interaction effects of hypnotics and alcohol on driving performance . J Traffic Med19: 9-13
34.
Lavoisy J, Zivkovic B, Benavides J, Perrault G H, Roberts P (1992) Apport du zolpidem dans la prise en charge des troubles du sommeil . L'encéphale18: 379-392
35.
Maes V, Grenez O, Charlier C, Smer H, Verstraete A, Wenning R (1999) Classification of medicines according to their influence on driving ability . Acta Clinica Belgica1 (Suppl 1): 82-88
36.
Mattmann P, Loepfe M, Scheitlin T, Schmidlin D, Gerne M, Strauch I, Lehmann D, Borbely A A (1982) Day-time residual effects and motor activity after three benzodiazepine hypnotics . Drug Res32: 461-465
37.
Menzin J, Lang K M, Levy P, Levy E (2001) A general model of the effects of sleep medications on the risk and cost of motor vehicle accidents and its application to France . Pharmaco-economics19: 69-78
38.
Mercier-Guyon C (1994) Médicaments, drogues et comportement au volant . Bull Acad Méd178: 1111-1122
39.
Nicholson A N, Pascoe P A (1986) Hypnotics activity of imadazopyridine (zopiclone) . Br J Clin Pharmacol21: 205-211
40.
O'Hanlon J F (1988) Are actual driving tests necessary for evaluating drug safety? Int Clin Psychopharmacol3: 81-85
41.
O'Hanlon J F (1995) Zopiclone's residual effects on psychomotor and information processing skills involved in complex tasks such as car driving: a critical review . Eur Psychiatry10 (Suppl 3): 137S-143S
42.
O'Hanlon J F, Volkerts E R (1986) Hypnotics and actual driving performance . Acta Psychiatr Scand332: 95-104
43.
O'Hanlon J F, Haak T W, Blaauw G J, Riemersma J B J (1982) Diazepam impairs lateral position control in highway driving . Science217: 79-81
44.
Owen D H, Warren D (1987) Perception and control of self-motion: implication for visual simulation of vehicular locomotion. In Ergonomics and human factors recent research, pp. 40-70. New York, Springer-Verlag
45.
Riedel W J, Vermeeren A, van Boxtel M P J, Vuurman E F P M, Verdhey F R J, Jolles J, Ramaekers J G (1998) Mechanisms of drug-induced driving impairment: a dimentional approach . Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp13: S49-S63
46.
Salva P, Costa J (1995) Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of zolpidem: therapeutic implications . Clin Pharmacokinet29: 142-153
47.
Seppala T, Nuott E, Dreyfust J F (1982) Drug-alcohol interactions on psychomotor skills: zopiclone and flunitrazepam . Int Pharmacopsychiatry17 (Suppl 2): 127-135
48.
Sherwood N (1998) A critical review of drugs and driving . Behav Res Road Safety8: 49-58
49.
Shoptaugh C F, Whitaker L A (1984) Verbal response times to directional traffic signs embedded in photographic street scenes . Human Factors26: 235-244
50.
Tafty M, Besset A, Billiard M (1992) Effects of zopiclone on subjective evaluation of sleep and daytime alertness and on psychomotor and physical performance in athletes . Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry16: 55-63
51.
Undén M, Schechter B R (1996) Next day effects after nighttime treatment with zolpidem: a review . Eur Psychiatry11 (Suppl 1): 21S-30S
52.
Van der Hulst M, Rothengatter T, Meijman T (1999) The effects of reduced visibility and time pressure on drivers' distance keeping behaviour. In Gale A G (ed), Brown I D, Haslegrave C M, Taylor S P (co-eds), pp. 311-318. Vision in vehicle VII. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
53.
Vermeeren A, O'Hanlon J F, Declerck A C (1995) Acute effects of zolpidem and flunitrazepam on sleep, memory and driving performance, compared to those of partial sleep deprivation and placebo . Acta Therapeut21: 47-64
54.
Vermeeren A, Danjou P E, O'Hanlon J F (1998) Residual effects of evening and middle-of-the-night administration of zaleplon 10 and 20 mg on memory and actual driving performance . Hum Psychopharmacol13: S98-S107
55.
Vermeeren A, Riedel W J, Van Boxtel M P J, Darwish M, Paty I, Patat A (2002) Differencial residual effects of zaleplon and zopiclone on actual driving: a comparison with a low dose of alcohol . Sleep25: 224-231
56.
Volkerts E R, de Vries G, Wiethoff M, Meijer T, O'Hanlon J F (1983) Loprazolam and flunitrazepam's residual effects upon actual driving performance. Technical report VK-83-04. Traffic Research Center, University of Groningen, Groningen
57.
Volkerts E R, Louwerens J W, Gloerich A B M, Brookhuis K J, O'Hanlon J F (1984) Zopiclone's residual effect upon actual driving performance versus those of notrazepam and flunitrazepam. Technical report VK-84-10. Traffic Research Center, University of Groningen, Groningen
58.
Volkerts E R, O'Hanlon J F (1986) Hypnotics' residual effects on driving performance. In O'Hanlon J F, De Gier J J (eds), pp. 123-135. Drugs and driving performance. Taylor and Francis, London
59.
Welfort A T (1980) Reaction time. Academic Press, New York
60.
Wetherell A (1986) Drugs and drivers' visual perception. In Gale A G (ed), Brown I D, Haslegrave C M, Taylor S P (co-eds), pp. 33-42. Vision in vehicle. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
61.
Willumeit H-P, Ott H, Kuschel C H R (1991) Effects of lormetazepam and other benzodiazepine receptor ligands on car-driving-related skills . Human Psychopharmacol6: 209-218
