This article describes the design and implementation of a program that incorporates a response-to-intervention (RTI) framework for promoting the development of early literacy and language skills among low-income minority children. The early literacy program, called the Exemplary Model of Early Reading Growth and Excellence, or EMERGE, combines classroom practices that are grounded in empirical research, a multitiered intervention hierarchy, high-quality professional development, and continuous progress monitoring to help children in Head Start classrooms acquire early literacy competencies to prepare them for later success in school. Preliminary program evaluation data are presented, and challenges associated with applying an RTI model in early childhood education are addressed.
Armbruster, B.B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2003). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.
2.
Badian, N.A. (2000). Prediction and prevention of reading failure. Timonium, MD: York Press.
3.
Barnett, D.W., Elliott, N., Wolsing, L., Bunger, C.E., Haski, H., McKissick, C., et al. (2006). Response to intervention for young children with extremely challenging behaviors: What it might look like. School Psychology Review, 35, 568—582.
4.
Batsche, G., Elliott, J., Graden, J.L., Grimes, J., Kovaleski, J.F., Prasse, D., et al. (2005). Response to intervention: Policy considerations and implementation. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Board of Directors of Special Education.
5.
Block, C.C., Canizares, S., Church, E.B., & Lobo, B. (2003). Scholastic Early Childhood Program. New York: Scholastic.
6.
Bryant, D.M., Burchinal, M., Lau, L.B., & Sparling, J.J. (1994). Family and classroom correlates of Head Start children's developmental outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9, 289—309.
7.
Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). (1999). Starting out right: A guide to promoting children's reading success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
8.
Campbell, F.A., Goldstein, S., Schaefer, E.S., & Ramey, C. (1991). Parental beliefs and values related to family risk, educational intervention, and child academic competence. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 167—182.
9.
Casey, A., & Howe, K. (2002). Best practices in early literacy skills. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 721—735). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
10.
Coleman, M.R., Buysse, V., & Neitzel, J. (2006). Response and recognition: An early intervening system for young children at-risk for learning disabilities. Full report. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.
11.
Dickinson, D.K., & Sprague, K.E. (2001). The nature and impact of early childhood care environments on the language and early literacy development of children from low-income families. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 263—280). New York: Guilford.
12.
Dunn, L.M., & Dunn, L.M. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—III. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.
13.
Early Childhood—Head Start Task Force. (2002). Teaching our youngest: A guide for preschool teachers and child-care and family providers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
14.
Early Childhood Research Institute on Measuring Growth and Development. (1998). Individual growth and development indicators for preschool children. Minneapolis: Center for Early Education and Development, University of Minnesota.
15.
Elbaum, B., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M., & Moody, S.W. (1999). Grouping practices and reading outcomes for students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 65, 399—415.
16.
Ezell, H.K., & Justice, L.M. (2000). Increasing the print focus of share reading interactions through observational learning. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9, 36—47.
17.
Foorman, B., Francis, D.J., Fletcher, J.M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1999). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37—55.
18.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2006). Introduction to responsiveness-to-intervention: What, why, and how valid is it?Reading Research Quarterly , 41, 92—99.
19.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Baltimore: Brookes.
20.
Invernizzi, M., Sullivan, A., Meier, J., & Swank, L. (2004). Phonological Awareness and Literacy Screening—PreKindergarten . Charlottesville: University of Virginia.
21.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437—447.
22.
Justice, L., & Kaderavek, J. (2002). Using shared storybook reading to promote emergent literacy. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(4), 8—13.
23.
Justice, L.M., & Pullen, P.C. (2003). Promising interventions for promoting emergent literacy skills: Three evidence-based approaches. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23, 99—113.
24.
Lonigan, C.J., Burgess, S.R., Anthony, J.L., & Barker, T.A. (1998). Development of phonological sensitivity in 2- to 5-year-old children. Journal of Educational Psychology , 90, 294—311.
25.
Makin, L. (2003). Creating positive literacy learning environments in early childhood. In N. Hall, J. Larson, & J. Marsh (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood literacy (pp. 327—337). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26.
Massey, S.L. (2004). Teacher-child conversation in the preschool classroom. EarlyChildhood Education Journal, 31, 227—231.
27.
Missel, K.N., McConnell, S.R., & Cadigan, K. (2006). Early literacy development: Skill growth and relations between classroom variables for preschool children. Journal of Early Intervention, 29, 227—231.
28.
Moustafa, M. (1997). Beyond traditional phonics: Research discoveries and reading instruction. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
29.
National Center for Education Statistics. ( 1999). NAEP 1998 reading report card for the nation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
30.
National Reading Panel. (2000). A report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
31.
Neuman, S.B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to read and write: Developmentally-appropriate practice. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
32.
Neuman, S. B., & Dickinson, D. K. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of early literacy research. New York: Guilford.
33.
Neuman, S.B., & Roskos, K. (1993). Access to print for children of poverty: Differential effects of adult mediation and literacy-enriched play settings on environmental and functional print tasks. American Educational Research Journal, 30, 95—122.
34.
Sandall, S., & Schwartz, I. (2002). Building blocks for teaching preschools with special needs. Baltimore: Brookes.
35.
Scarborough, H.S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97—110). New York: Guilford .
36.
Searfoss, L.W., Readence, J.E., & Malette, M.H. (2001). Helping children learn to read: Creating a classroom literacy environment. Toronto, Canada: Allyn & Bacon .
37.
Smith, M.W., & Dickinson, D.K. (2002). Early language and literacy classroom observation toolkit. Baltimore: Brookes.
38.
Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children . Washington, DC: National Research Council.
39.
Stanovich, K.E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford.
40.
Torgesen, J.K. (1998, Spring/Summer). Catch them before they fall: Identification and assessment to prevent reading failure in young children. American Education, pp. 1—8.
41.
VanDerHeyden, A.M., & Snyder, P. (2006). Integrating frameworks from early childhood intervention and school psychology to accelerate growth for all young children. School Psychology Review, 35, 519—534.
42.
Welsch, J., Sullivan, A., & Justice, L. (2003). That's my letter! What preschoolers' name writing representations tell us about emergent literacy knowledge. Journal of Literacy Research, 35, 757—776.
43.
Whitehurst, G.J., Arnold, D.S., Epstein, J.N., Angell, A.L., Smith, M., & Fisceht, J.E. (1999). A picture book reading intervention in day care and home for children from low-income families. Developmental Psychology, 30, 679—689.
44.
Whitehurst, G.J., & Lonigan, C.J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69, 848—872.
45.
Whitehurst, G.J., & Lonigan, C.J. (2001). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders to readers. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 11—29). New York: Guilford.
