This study explores the nature of the parent-child relationship during early adolescence. Differences between the mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships and possible behavioral correlates of parental involvement and attachment are examined. A multimodal data collection procedure was used to gather information from adolescents (N = 116), their parents, and their teachers. Findings indicate that consistent with previous reports, fathers are less involved in parenting their adolescent children than are mothers, and teenagers report being more securely attached to their mothers. Nonresidential fathers were found to be significantly less involved in parenting than fathers who live at home. In addition, adolescents not living with their fathers reported feeling less secure paternal attachment than adolescents who lived with their fathers. Finally, father-adolescent involvement and attachment were found to explain a unique proportion of the variance seen in adolescents’ teacher-reported externalizing and total behavioral problems at school. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Achenbach, T. M.
(1991). Manual for the Teacher’s Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
2.
Adams, K. S.
, Sheldon-Keller, A. E., & West, M. (1996). Attachment organization and history of suicidal behavior in clinical adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 264-272.
3.
Ahmeduzzaman, M.
, & Roopnarine, J. L. (1992). Sociodemographic factors, functioning style, fathers’ involvement with preschoolers in African-American families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 699-707.
4.
Ainsworth, M. S.
(1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
5.
Ainsworth, M. S.
, Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the strange situation and at home. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
Ainsworth, M. S.
, & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 333-341.
7.
Amato, P. R.
(1994). Father-child relations, mother-child relations, and offspring psychological well-being in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031-1042.
8.
Amato, P. R.
(1998). More than money? Men’s contributions to their children’s lives. In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Men in families. When do they get involved? What difference does it make? (pp. 241-278). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
9.
Arbona, C.
, & Power, T. G. (2003). Parental attachment, self-esteem, and antisocial behaviors among African American, European American, and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 40-51.
10.
Biller, H. B.
(1993). Fathers and families: Paternal factors in child development. Westport, CT: Auburn House.
11.
Bohlin, G.
, Hagekull, B., & Rydell, A. (2000). Attachment and social functioning: A longitudinal study from infancy to middle childhood. Social Development, 9, 24-39.
12.
Bowlby, J.
(1973). Attachment and loss (Vol. 2). New York: Basic Books.
13.
Bowlby, J.
(1977). The making and breaking of affectional bonds: Aetiology and psychopathology in the light of attachment theory. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 201-210.
14.
Bretherton, I.
(1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28, 759-775.
15.
Brown, L. S.
, & Wright, J. (2003). The relationship between attachment strategies and psychopathology in adolescence. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 76, 351-367.
16.
Buist, K. L.
, Dekovic, M., Meeus, W., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2002). Developmental patterns in adolescent attachment to mother, father and sibling. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 167-176.
17.
Carlson, E. A.
, & Sroufe, A. (1995). Contributions of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology. In D. E. Cichetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1 Theory and methods (pp. 581-617). New York: John Wiley.
18.
Coley, R. L.
(1998). Children’s socialization experiences and functioning in single-mother households: The importance of fathers and other men. Child Development, 69, 219-223.
19.
Coley, R. L.
(2001). Emerging research on low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers. American Psychologist, 56, 743-753.
20.
Coley, R. L.
(2003). Daughter-father relationships and adolescent psychosocial functioning in low-income African-American families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 867-876.
21.
Coltrane, S.
(1995). The future of fatherhood: Social, demographic, and economic influences on men’s family involvements. In W. Marsiglio (Ed.), Fatherhood: Contemporary theory, research and social policy (pp. 255-274). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
22.
Culp, R. E.
, Schadle, S., Robinson, L., & Culp, A. M. (2000). Relationships among paternal involvement and young children’s perceived self-competence and behavioral problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 27-38.
23.
Dekovic, M.
, Buist, K. L., & Reitz, E. (2004). Stability and changes in problem behavior during adolescence: Latent growth analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 1-12.
24.
Edelbrock, C.
, & Achenbach, T. M. (1984). The Teacher Version of the Child Behavior Profile: I. boys aged 6-11. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 207-217.
25.
Flouri, E.
, & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvement in children’s later mental health. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 63-78.
26.
Fox, G. L.
, & Bruce, C. (2001). Conditional fatherhood: Identity theory and parental investment theory as alternative sources of explanation of fathering. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 394-403.
27.
Furstenberg, F. F.
, & Harris, K. M. (1993). When and why fathers matter: Impacts of father involvement on the children of adolescent mothers. In R. I. Lerman & T. J. Ooms (Eds.), Young unwed fathers: Changing roles and emerging policies (pp. 117-138). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
28.
Graham, C. A.
, & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2000). School-aged children’s vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: The role of attachment security, maternal depressive symptomatology, and economic risk. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 201-213.
29.
Guidano, V. F.
, & Liotti, G. (1983). Cognitive processes and emotional disorders. New York: Guilford.
30.
Hilton, J. M.
, & Devall, E. L. (1998). Comparison of parenting and children’s behavior in single-mother, single-father, and intact families. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 29, 23-54.
31.
Jacobsen, T.
, & Hoffmann, V. (1997). Children’s attachment representations: Longitudinal relations to school behavior and academic competency in middle childhood and adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 33, 703-710.
32.
Jacobson, L.
, & Edmondson, L. (1993). Father figures. American Demographics, 15, 15-32.
33.
Kaufman, J. M.
(1997). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
34.
Kernberg, O.
(1994). Internal world and external reality. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
35.
Kerns, K. A.
, Klepac, L., & Cole, A. (1996). Peer relationships and preadolescents’ perceptions of security in the child-mother relationship. Developmental Psychology, 32, 457-466.
36.
Kerns, K. A.
, Tomich, P. L., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Attachment-based assessments of parent-child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36, 614-626.
37.
Lamb, M. E.
(2000). The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage and Family Review, 29, 23-42.
38.
Lyons-Ruth, K.
, Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psycho-social problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development, 64, 572-585.
39.
Marcus, R. F.
, & Betzer, P. D. (1996). Attachment and antisocial behavior in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 229-248.
40.
Marcus, R. F.
, & Sanders-Reio, J. (2001). The influence of attachment on school completion. School Psychology Quarterly, 16, 427-444.
41.
Marsiglio, W.
, & Cohan, M. (2000). Contextualizing father involvement and paternal influence: Sociological and qualitative themes. Marriage and Family Review, 29, 75-95.
42.
Masling, J. M.
, & Bornstein, R. F. (Eds.). (1993). Psychoanalytic perspectives on psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
43.
McDowell, D. J.
, Parke, R. D., & Wang, S. J. (2003). Differences between mothers’ and fathers’ advice-giving style and content: Relations with social competence and psychological functioning in middle childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 55-76.
44.
Mesman, J.
, & Koot, H. M. (2000). Common and specific correlates of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 3, 428-437.
45.
Nelson, T.
, Edin, K., & Clampit-Lundquist, S. (1999, January). Doin’ the best I can: How low income, non-custodial fathers in Philadelphia talk about their families. Paper presented at the Urban Seminar Series on Children’s Health and Safety, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
46.
Patterson, J.
, Pryor, J., & Field, J. (1995). Adolescent attachment to parents and friends in relation to aspects of self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 365-376.
47.
Phares, V.
, & Compas, B. E. (1992). The role of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology: Make room for daddy. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 387-412.
48.
Pierrehumbert, B.
, Miljkovitch, R., Plancherel, B., Halfon, O., & Ansermet, F. (2000). Attachment and temperament in early childhood; Implications for later behavior problems. Infant and Child Development, 9, 17-32.
49.
Pinzi, R.
, Ram. A., Har-Even, D., Shnit, D., & Weizman, A. (2001). Attachment styles and aggression in physically abused and neglected children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30, 769-786.
50.
Procidano, M. E.
, & Guinta, D. M. (1989). Object representations and symptomatology: Preliminary findings in young adult psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 309-316.
51.
Rabian, B.
, & Silverman, W. K. (1995). Anxiety disorders. In M. Hersen & T. R. Ammerman (Eds.), Advances in abnormal child psychology (pp. 235-252). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
52.
Radin, N.
, & Harold-Goldsmith, R. (1989). The involvement of selected unemployed and employed men with their children. Child Development, 60, 454-459.
53.
Raja, S. N.
, McGee, R., & Stanton, W. R. (1992). Perceived attachments to parents and peers and psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 471-485.
54.
Reynolds, C. R.
, & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). The Behavior Assessment System for Children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
55.
Rice, K. G.
(1990). Attachment in adolescence: A narrative meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 511-538.
56.
Roopnarine, J. L.
, & Ahmeduzzaman, M. (1993). Puerto Rican fathers’ involvement with their preschool-age children. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15, 96-107.
57.
Shipman, K. L.
, Zeman, J., Nesin, A. E., & Fitzgerald, M. (2003). Children’s strategies for displaying anger and sadness: What works with whom?Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 100-122.
58.
Suess, G. J.
, Grossman, K. E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1992). Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on quality of adaptation in pre-school: From dyadic to individual organization of self. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 43-65.
59.
Thomas, A.
, & Chess, T. (1984). Genesis and evolution of behavioral disorders: From infancy to early adult life. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1-9.
60.
Thomas, G.
, Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G. M. (1996). The effects of single mother families and non-resident fathers on delinquency and substance abuse in Black and White adolescents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 884-894.
61.
Turnbull, A. P.
, & Turnbull, H. R. (1997). Families, professionals and exceptionality (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
62.
Turner, P. T.
(1991). Relations between attachment, gender, and behavior with peers in preschool. Child Development, 62, 1475-1488.
63.
Vaughn, M. L.
, Riccio, C. A., Hynd, G. W., & Hall, J. (1997). Diagnosing ADHD (predominantly inattentive and combined type subtypes): Discriminant validity of the Behavior Assessment System for Children and the Achenbach Parent and Teacher Rating scales. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 349-357.
64.
Walker, H. M.
, Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. M. (2004). Antisocial behavior in school. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
65.
Walker, H. M.
, Shinn, M. R., O’Neill, R. E., & Ramsey, E. (1987). A longitudinal assessment of the development of antisocial behavior in boys: Rationale, methodology and first year results. Remedial and Special Education, 8, 7-16.
66.
Warren, S. L.
, Houston, L., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 637-644.
67.
Weiss, R. S.
(1982). Attachment in adult life. In C. M. Parks & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behavior (pp. 171-184). New York: Basic Books.
68.
Westen, D.
(1991). Social cognition and object relations. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 429-455.
69.
Williams, E.
, & Radin, N. (1993). Paternal involvement, maternal employment, and adolescents’ academic achievement: An 11-year follow-up. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63, 306-312.
70.
Young, D. M.
, & Roopnarine, J. L. (1994). Fathers’ childcare involvement with children with and without disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 488-502.
71.
Zeman, J.
, & Shipman, K. (1997). Social-contextual influences on expectancies for managing anger and sadness: The transition from middle childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 33, 917-924.
