This study examines characteristics of young adolescents who experience self-care, associations between self-care and academic achievement, and whether associations of self-care with academic adjustment vary by child, family, or community characteristics. Using data from the nationally representative 1999 National Household Education Survey, hierarchical log-linear models assessed how self-care was associated with several academic and behavioral measures for 9- to 13-year-olds. Overall, more self-care was significantly associated with lower academic performance and with school behavior problems, although those associations varied by gender, parent-child communication, and whether young adolescents in self-care also participated in some supervised out-of-school activities. Findings are discussed in light of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.
Brody, G.H., & Stoneman, Z. (1992). Child competence and developmental goals among rural black families: Investigating the links. In I. Sigel, A. McGillicuddy-DeLisi, & J. Goodnow (Eds.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 415-431). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Six theories of child development (pp. 187-249). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
3.
Cain, V., & Hofferth, S. (1989). Parental choice of self care for school-age children . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 65-77.
4.
Cappizano, J., Tout, K., & Adams, G. (2000). Child care patterns of school-age children with employed mothers. Occasional paper. Assessing the new Federalism: An Urban Institute program to assess changing social policies. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED446172)
5.
Casper, L., & Smith, K. (2004). Self care: Why do parents leave their children unsupervised? Demography, 41, 285-301.
6.
Center for Prevention Research and Development. ( 2002). Assessing the needs for after-school programs and services for Illinois children and families. A report to the Illinois After-School Initiative, Illinois Department of Human Services, Illinois State Board of Education. Champaign, IL: Author.
7.
Coley, R.L., Morris, J.E., & Hernandez, D. (2004). Out-of-school care and problem behavior trajectories among low income adolescents: Individual, family, and neighborhood characteristics as added risks. Child Development, 75, 948-965.
8.
Eccles, J.S., Lord, S., & Buchanan, C. (1996). School transitions in early adolescence: What are we doing to our young people? In J. Graber , J. Brooks-Gunn, & A. Petersen (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence: Interpersonal domains and context (pp. 251-284). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
9.
Feinstein, L., Bynner, J., & Duckworth, K. (2006). Young people's leisure contexts and their relation to adult outcomes. Journal of Youth Studies, 9, 305-327.
10.
Fisher, C., & Lerner, R. (1994). Foundations of applied developmental psychology . In C. Fisher & R. Lerner (Eds.), Applied developmental psychology (pp. 3-20). New York: McGraw-Hill.
11.
Galambos, N.L., & Garbarino, J. (1985). Adjustment of unsupervised children in a rural setting. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 146, 227-231.
12.
Galambos, N., & Maggs, J. (1991). Out-of-school-care of young adolescents and self-reported behavior. Developmental Psychology, 27, 644-655.
13.
Garcia-Coll, C.T., Meyer, E.C., & Brillon, L. (1995). Ethnic and minority parents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of Parenting: Volume II (pp. 189-209). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Goodman, R. (Writer/Producer) & Goodman, B. (Producer). (1999, October 19). The lost children of Rockdale County [Television broadcast]. Boston: Public Broadcasting Service.
16.
Gootman, J. (2000). After-school programs to promote child and adolescent development. Committee on Community-Level Programs for Youth, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, National Research Council, Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
17.
Goyette-Ewing, M. (2000). Children's after-school arrangements: A study of self care and developmental outcomes. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 20, 55-67.
18.
Harwood, R., Leyendecker, B., Carlson, V., Asencio, M., & Miller, A. (2003). Parenting among Latino families in the U.S. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook on parenting (Vol. 2, pp. 21-46). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
19.
Hedlin, D., Hannes, K., Saito, R., Goldman, A., & Knich, D. (1986). Summary of the family's view of after school time . St. Paul: University of Minnesota, Center for Youth Development and Research.
20.
Hetherington, E.M., & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or worse: Divorce reconsidered. New York: Norton.
21.
Hofer, B. (1999, March). The role of school in United States adolescents' lives. In The educational system in the United States: Case study findings (chap. 2). Retrieved August 29, 2005, from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/USCaseStudy/chapter4c.html
22.
Kerrebrock, N., & Lewitt, E. (1999). Children in self care. In R. Behrman (Ed.), When school is out: Vol. 9. The future of children (pp. 151-160). Los Altos, CA: David and Lucille Packard Foundation.
23.
Mahoney, J., Stattin, H., & Lord, H. (2004). Unstructured youth recreation centre participation and antisocial behaviour development: Selection influences and the moderating role of antisocial peers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 553-560.
24.
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. (1987 ). The Metropolitan Life survey of the American teacher 1987: Strengthening the links between home and school. New York : Survey conducted by Louis Harris and Associates.
25.
Miller, B. (2003). Critical hours: After school programs and educational success. Retrieved November 3, 2006, from http://www.nmefdn.org/uploads/Critical_Hours.pdf
26.
Mott, J., Crowe, P., Richardson, J., & Flay, B. (1999). After school supervision and adolescent cigarette smoking: Contributions of the setting and intensity of after school self care . Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 35-58.
27.
Mulhall, P., Stone, D., & Stone, B. (1996). Home alone: Is it a risk factor for middle school youth and drug use? Journal of Drug Education, 26, 39-48.
28.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (1999a). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Data file user's manual, Volume I. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
29.
Nces. (1999b). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Data file user's manual, Volume II. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
30.
Nces. (1999c). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Data file user's manual, Volume III. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
31.
Noam, G., & Miller, B. (2002). Youth development and after-school time. New Directions for Youth Development. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
32.
Osgood, D.W., Anderson, A., & Shaffer, J. (2005). Unstructured leisure in the after-school hours . In J. Mahoney, R. Larson, & J. Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs (pp. 45-64). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
Pettit, G., Bates, J., Dodge, K., & Meece, D. (1999). The impact of after-school peer contact on early adolescent externalizing problems is moderated by parental monitoring, perceived neighborhood safety, and prior adjustment. Child Development , 70, 768-778.
34.
Polatnick, M.R. (2002). Too old for child care? Too young for self-care ? Journal of Family Issues, 23, 728-747.
35.
Richardson, J.L., Dwyer, K., McGuigan, K., Hansen, W.B., Dent, C., & Johnson, C.A. (1989). Substance use among eighth-grade students who take care of themselves after school. Pediatrics, 84, 556-566.
36.
Richardson, J.L., Radziszewska, B., Dent, C.W., & Flay, B.R. (1993). Relationship between after-school care of adolescents and substance use, risk taking, depressed mood, and academic achievement. Pediatrics, 92(1), 32-38.
37.
Riley, D., & Steinberg, J. (2004). Four popular stereotypes about children in self-care: Implications for family life educators. Family Relations, 53, 95-101.
38.
Rodman, H., Pratto, D., & Nelson, R. (1985). Child care arrangements and children's functioning: A comparison of self care and adult-care children. Developmental Psychology, 21, 413-418.
39.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331.
40.
Schaefer, E.S., & Edgerton, M. (1980). Parent interview and sociodemographic predictors of adaptation and achievement (Report No. 1979-09-00). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED179318)
41.
Schuerger, J.M., & Kuna, D.L. (1987). Adolescent personality and school and college performance: A follow-up study. Psychology in the Schools , 24, 281-285.
42.
Smetana, J.G., & Gaines, C. (1999). Adolescent-parent conflict in middle-class AfricanAmerican families. Child Development, 70, 1447-1463.
43.
Steinberg, L. (1986). Latchkey children and susceptibility to peer pressure: An ecological analysis. Developmental Psychology, 22, 433-439.
44.
Steinberg, L.D., & Silk, J.S. (2002). Parenting adolescents [Electronic version]. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 103-134). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
45.
Stewart, R. (2001). Adolescent self-care: Reviewing the risks. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 82, 119-126.
46.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
47.
Vandell, D.L., & Corasiniti, M. (1986). The relation between third graders' after-school care and social, academic, and emotional functioning . Child Development, 59, 868-875.
48.
Vandell, D.L., & Posner, J. (1999). Conceptualization and measurement of children's after school environments. In S. L. Friedman & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts (pp. 167-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
49.
Vandell, D.L., & Shumow, L. (1999). After school child care programs. In R. Behrman (Ed.), When school is out: Vol. 9. The future of children (pp. 64-80). Los Altos, CA: David and Lucille Packard Foundation.
50.
Vandivere, S., Tout, K., Zaslow, M., Calkins, J., & Cappizano, J. (2003). Unsupervised time: Family and child factors associated with self care. Assessing the New Federalism, Occasional Paper No. 71, Urban Institute. Retrieved September 9, 2005, from http://urbaninstitute.org/Template.cfm?Section=ByAuthor&NavMenuID=63&template=TaggedContent/ViewPublication.cfm&PublicationID=8658
51.
Zimmerman, M.A., & Arunkumar, R. (1994). Resiliency research: Implications for schools and social policy. Social Policy Report, 8(4), 1-20.
