Academic and Career Expectations of Ethnic Minority Youth in Hong Kong

Abstract

Based on social-cognitive career theory (SCCT), we explore how ethnic identity, parental occupation, efficacy in learning Chinese, and learning experience relate to ethnic minority adolescents’ academic and career expectations. The participants are 632 Southeast Asian adolescents in Hong Kong. In accordance with SCCT, structural equation modeling results show that ethnic identity is related to learning experience, which in turn is associated with efficacy in learning Chinese. Efficacy in learning Chinese significantly predicts the adolescents’ academic and career expectations, but parental occupation does not. Testing of alternative models also shows that ethnic identity is directly related to the two outcome expectations. We discuss the implications and limitations of the study in the context of extending SCCT to a more interdependent culture and assessing factors that contribute to outcome expectations of ethnic minority groups.

Keywords

ethnic minority academic and career expectations adolescents

Individuals from ethnic minorities tend to report lower academic and career expectations (e.g., McWhirter, 1997). Such expectations are often associated with future career interests, choice of goals and actions, and future performance (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). Therefore, understanding the factors that influence these expectations among ethnic minority individuals is important for educators and career counselors. In this study, we adopt the social-cognitive career theory (SCCT) by Lent et al. (1994) to examine the influence of ethnic identity, efficacy in learning Chinese, learning experience, and parental occupations on the academic and career expectations of Southeast Asian adolescents studying in Hong Kong.

Overview: Hong Kong Education System

Although Hong Kong is a predominantly Chinese society, a significant portion of the population comes from other ethnic backgrounds, especially Southeast Asian countries such as India, Nepal, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Pakistan. According to the Hong Kong bi-census data (Census and Statistics Department, 2006), more than 2.7% of the total population (184,000) in Hong Kong are Southeast Asians, and approximately 8,000 students of Southeast Asian background are currently studying in secondary schools in Hong Kong. These students are often faced with different challenges in local schools, such as learning Chinese, the primary teaching medium in most schools. Moreover, most students from Southeast Asia are concentrated in lower banding secondary schools that offer Hindi and Urdu language classes (Loper, 2004).

Unlike Hong Kong Chinese students, the ethnic majority, very few Southeast Asian students pursue tertiary education. A local study showed that only 0.9% of tertiary students are from the various ethnic minorities . Furthermore, members of ethnic minority groups are overrepresented in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations. The latest census data in Hong Kong show that the great majority (75.8%) of working ethnic minorities in Hong Kong are in elementary occupations. This is much higher than the 19.5% in the entire working population of Hong Kong.

Hue and colleagues (Hue, 2010; Hue & Kennedy, 2014) report that Southeast Asian students have different education and career expectations from local Chinese students due to their different cultural backgrounds. For example, most Southeast Asian students do not plan to pursue higher education, or do not have sufficient information on how to achieve such goals. Furthermore, unlike local Chinese students, Southeast Asian students do not have strong career expectations. In particular, girls are encouraged to marry at a very young age, while boys often engage in laboring jobs (e.g., construction site workers, working in restaurants as waiters) or work in family businesses (Hue, 2010). These students often compare their lives in Hong Kong with their experiences back in their home countries, which are typically less favorable, and are therefore usually happy with their state in Hong Kong, their host society (Hue, 2010).

Prior research has identified several factors that may have contributed to the often lower academic and career expectations of students from ethnic minority groups, such as efficacy in learning the Chinese language (Tsung, Zhang, & Cruickshank, 2010). However, researchers have yet to consider both individual and parental factors in relation to these expectations. The present study adopts the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) to explore how individual and parental factors relate to students’ academic and career expectations. Betz and Voyten (1997) define academic expectation as the belief in the consequence of performing given behaviors in relation to academic performance. For example, if a student believes that studying hard will be rewarded with good academic results, he or she is said to have a positive academic outcome expectation. Career expectation focuses on the future benefits of present career-related behaviors. For example, spending more time preparing for different careers may allow an individual to make a better career decision in the future. In this study, we focus on academic and career expectations because these factors relate to important outcomes, such as academic interests and choices, and they also motivate future performance (Bandura, 1997; Lent et al., 1994). Individuals who expect to perform well in their academic pursuits are also more likely to have better career options in the future (e.g., Betz & Voyten, 1997).

SCCT

SCCT is a conceptual framework that describes the formation of vocational interest, career choice, academic performance, and career performance. According to the model, personal inputs (e.g., ethnicity) and contextual factors (e.g., parental factors) affect an individual’s learning experience, which consists of crucial factors that affect an individual’s level of self-efficacy and his or her academic/career expectations. These expectations will then in turn influence the individual’s future career decisions and performance. As SCCT is grounded in Bandura’s social-cognitive theory, the two models share many similarities. For example, both theories emphasize the importance of social-cognitive variables, such as self-efficacy and expectations, on future choices and behaviors. Nevertheless, the two theories differ in several ways. For one, social-cognitive theory accounts for the general relationship that behaviors have with personal and environmental factors, whereas SCCT primarily focuses on the career development aspects of an individual. Furthermore, social-cognitive theory can be applied to different age groups and on behaviors in different domains, but SCCT focuses specifically on adolescents’ preparation and implementation of career choice.

Ethnic Identity and Learning Experience

An important but underexplored subject within SCCT is the role of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity is a self-concept that originates from the knowledge of one’s membership in a social group and the values attached to that particular membership. The concept encompasses individual differences in feelings of ethnic belonging, pride, and positive attitudes toward one’s ethnic group (Phinney, 1992). According to Phinney (1992), ethnic identity comprises of ethnic behaviors and practices, affirmation and belonging, and ethnic identity achievement. Ethnic behaviors and practices refer to one’s involvement in the social activities and cultural traditions of their ethnic group. Affirmation and belonging pertain to the positive feelings or ethnic pride about one’s ethnic background, group membership, and the feelings of belonging and attachment to the group. Ethnic identity achievement refers to one’s sense of self as a member of an ethnic group. Ethnic identity is a developmental process that involves exploration and commitment. It is achieved when an individual actively learns about his or her ethnic background, and demonstrates a clear understanding of the role of ethnicity for himself or herself (Phinney, 1992).

An individual’s career development is related to his or her ethnic group identification and reference group perspective (Fouad & Arbona, 1994; Gloria & Hird, 1999). In a society that is characterized by ethnic discrimination, ethnic identity is a particularly salient domain of ego identity development, which in turn affects the process of resolving more vocationally related tasks . In Hong Kong, Southeast Asians are often subjected to discrimination and negative stereotypes. For example, a recent study finds that local Hong Kong Chinese tend to be less accepting of Southeast Asians than other ethnic groups such as Europeans, Americans, and Japanese (Hong Kong Unison, 2012). It is therefore important to explore how ethnic identity may affect Southeast Asian students’ academic and career expectations in Hong Kong. However, with only a few exceptions (e.g., Flores & O’Brien, 2002; Gushue, 2006), there is a paucity of studies that investigate such psychological mechanism. One such exception is Gushue (2006), whose work is based on SCCT, and who reports that the relationship between ethnic identity and expectations is mediated by self-efficacy. However, the researcher does not investigate learning experience, which SCCT hypothesizes to mediate the ethnic identity and efficacy relationship. According to SCCT model, learning experience such as personal accomplishment in class and vicarious learning from social models is the experiential source of self-efficacy and expectation. For example, when an adolescent observes other individuals with similar backgrounds succeeding academically, he or she will develop a higher sense of efficacy. Similarly, if an adolescent experiences a success in class, the sense of personal accomplishment can boost his or her level of perceived efficacy. Therefore, the present study aims to test whether ethnic identity and contextual factors (i.e., parental input) are associated with learning experience. Moreover, we seek to determine how learning experience is related to efficacy in learning Chinese, which in turn correlates with academic and career expectations.

We hypothesize that consolidated ethnic identity is related to positive learning experience within an ethnic minority group (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001). Previous research showed that a strong and consolidated ethnic identity is closely related to positive school behaviors such as better school adjustment among adolescents with ethnic minority backgrounds (Phinney et al., 2001; Portes & Rumbaut, 2007). Strong group affiliation and awareness of ethnic background are related to positive achievement beliefs and academic adjustments among individuals from ethnic minority groups (O’Connor, 1999). Adolescents who have a devalued perception of their ethnic identity would suffer from negative social identity and lower self-esteem. Such adolescents will experience higher levels of anxiety in school, as well as negative learning experiences (Hackett & Byars, 1996), such as perceiving pressure to attain personal accomplishment in school or obtain praise from significant others.

Parental Occupation and Learning Experience

In Hong Kong, Southeast Asian ethnic minorities often hold less prestigious occupations. The majority of them (76.4%) are in “elementary occupations,” and very few work in managerial or professional positions (Census and Statistics Department, 2006). Parental occupation is often closely related to adolescents’ learning. For example, children who perceive their parents’ jobs as less satisfying and rewarding tend to develop negative attitudes and expectations toward the importance of academic achievement (e.g., Loughlin & Barling, 2001), and also may develop more cynical attitudes toward their own academic endeavor. Furthermore, they may also lack successful academic/career role models from whom they can learn. Therefore, we hypothesize that parental occupations serve as an antecedent of ethnic minority adolescents’ learning experience.

Learning Experience and Efficacy in Learning Chinese

Learning experience serves as the mediator between personal/environmental input and efficacy of individuals. Gainor and Lent (1998) and Lent, Lopez, and Bieschke (1991) report that learning experience in mathematics is significantly correlated with self-efficacy in mathematics. In the same vein, we believe that when Southeast Asian ethnic minority adolescents obtain positive learning experience in the classroom, this positive experience will enhance their perceived ability in mastering Chinese. Moreover, if these adolescents observe that other students with similar backgrounds can learn Chinese, they will also have higher perceived efficacy in mastering Chinese. We therefore hypothesize a positive relationship between learning experience and efficacy of learning Chinese.

Efficacy in Learning Chinese and Expectations

Efficacy in mastering Chinese is an important factor in shaping individuals’ expectations. Hong Kong is a trilingual (Cantonese, English, and Putonghua) and bi-literate (Chinese and English) society (Tsung et al., 2010), and most schools in Hong Kong use Cantonese as the teaching medium. Hence, an inability to communicate in Chinese, particularly in the written form, poses considerable challenges to students from ethnic minorities, both in terms of their academic pursuit and their future career selection (Tsung et al., 2010). Although Chinese proficiency is crucial, the efficacy to learn Chinese is essential as well. Efficacy in learning Chinese involves the self-perceived ability to learn Chinese as a second language. Students with high self-efficacy in learning Chinese will experience lower second language anxiety, and will perform better in language achievement. Thus, we hypothesize that efficacy in learning Chinese will be positively related to the participants’ academic and career expectations.

The Present Study

The present study is the first attempt to use the SCCT model to understand how ethnic identity, parental occupation, learning experience, and efficacy in learning Chinese relate to academic and career expectations among Southeast Asian adolescents in Hong Kong. Our goal is to help fill the gap in the existing literature by looking into the effects of personal and parental factors on expectations among an understudied population, namely, Southeast Asian ethnic minority youths in Hong Kong. Specifically, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 1: Ethnic identity is positively correlated with learning experience.

Hypothesis 2: Parental occupation is positively correlated with learning experience.

Hypothesis 3: Learning experience is positively correlated with efficacy in learning Chinese.

Hypothesis 4: Learning experience and efficacy in learning Chinese are positively correlated with academic and career expectations.

Method

Procedure

Data collection was conducted between September and November 2009. Four secondary schools in Hong Kong that actively accept non-Chinese students participated in the study. Before data collection, all participants were informed of the rationale of the study, as well as their right to confidentiality, anonymity, and withdrawal. Participation was entirely voluntary, and no monetary reward was given. They also signed a consent form prior to participation. The questionnaire was in English in consideration of the participants’ language preference and ability to comprehend written Chinese. A total of 632 valid questionnaires were received, achieving a response rate of approximately 98%. Among the participants who reported their gender, 283 (44.8%) are male and 310 (49.1%) are female; 39 (6.2%) participants did not disclose their gender. The ethnicities of the participants are as follows: 227 (37.4%) are Pakistani, 154 (25.4%) are Nepalese, 104 (17.1%) are Indian, 81 (13.3%) are Filipino, and 41 (10.4%) are from other ethnic groups. The mean age of the participants was 13.92 (SD = 1.73), and the average duration of their stay in Hong Kong was 9.06 years (SD = 4.41).

Measures

Ethnic identity

Ethnic identity is measured using the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Scale (MEIM; Phinney, 1992). This scale consists of 14 items, 5 of which measure affirmation and belonging (e.g., “I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to”). Seven items measure ethnic identity achievement (e.g., “I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership”), and 2 measure ethnic behavior (e.g., “I participate in the cultural practices of my own group, such as special food, music, or customers”). Participants indicated their responses on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree and 4 = strongly agree). In the present study, the alpha coefficient for affirmation and belonging is .78, and for ethnic identity achievement is .67. As reliability cannot be calculated with only two items, the alpha coefficient for the ethnic behavior subscale is not obtained.

Learning experience

Learning experience is measured by the 37-item scale by Lent et al. (1991). The original scale measures personal performance accomplishment, vicarious learning, social persuasion, physiological states, and reaction toward learning mathematics. As the present study focuses on general learning experience rather than on a specific subject, the items were revised accordingly to suit the purpose. Sample items include “I have received special awards for my academic ability,” and “I do not usually worry about my ability to solve my homework.” Participants indicated their responses on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating better learning experience. As we aim to assess participants’ overall learning experience, we averaged the scores and created an overall “learning experience” score. As there are a large number of scale items (37 items), we adopted data parceling to reduce the number of observed variables and minimize potential estimation problem (Nasser & Takahashi, 2003). We randomly assigned 5 items per parcel (the last parcel had 6 items), and each parcel is indicated by the mean of the items. A confirmatory factor analysis shows that a one-factor model fits the data well (normed fit index [NFI] = 0.95; comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.96; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.70; 90% confidence interval [CI] = [0.05, 0.09]). The alpha value of the learning experience scale is .81.

Efficacy in learning Chinese

Efficacy in learning Chinese is adopted from a scale reported by Cheng (2001), which was originally developed to measure efficacy in learning English. To fit the objectives of the present study, all items were rewritten to focus on the respondents’ study of Chinese (e.g., “I believe that I have the ability to learn Chinese well”). Participants indicate their responses on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). A higher score indicates a higher self-efficacy in learning Chinese. The alpha coefficient of this scale is .73.

Academic and career expectations

Both academic and career expectations are measured using scales developed by Betz and Voyten (1997). Five items (e.g., “If I do well in school, then I will be better able to achieve my future goals”) measure academic expectation, and four items measure career expectation (“If I know my interests and abilities, then I will be able to choose a good career”). Both use a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). In the present study, the alpha values of the academic and career expectation scales are .87 and .89, respectively.

Demographics and parental occupation

Participants also indicate their gender (0 = male, 1 = female), age, ethnic background, and parental occupation. Manufacturing and manual work are coded as “0,” and white-collar and professional jobs as “1.”

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Table 1 lists the descriptive statistics, including the mean and standard deviation of major variables, for the overall sample and for different ethnic subgroups. ANOVA results show that there are significant differences among ethnic subgroups on two variables, namely, affirmation and belonging, and learning experience. Post hoc analyses using the Tukey procedure show that for affirmation and belonging, Filipino students reported significantly higher scores than their Pakistani and Nepalese classmates. As for learning experience, Pakistani students reported better learning experience than Nepalese students.

Table 1.

Group Comparison on Key Variables.

	Indian (n = 104)	Pakistani (n = 227)	Nepalese (n = 154)	Filipino (n = 81)	Others (n = 41)	Overall (N = 632)	F
Affirmation and belonging	3.14 (0.58)	3.07 (0.68)^a	3.00 (0.52)^b	3.30 (0.51)^a,b	2.99 (0.53)	3.09 (0.59)	3.85**
Ethnic identity achievement	2.68 (0.42)	2.77 (0.46)	2.71 (0.38)	2.78 (0.36)	2.62 (0.45)	2.73 (0.42)	1.89
Ethnic behaviors	2.84 (0.77)	2.87 (0.73)	2.82 (0.60)	2.83 (0.66)	2.64 (0.73)	2.83 (0.70)	0.91
Learning experience	3.06 (0.40)	3.09 (0.51)^a	2.94 (0.41)^a	2.98 (0.26)	3.04 (0.33)	3.03 (0.43)	3.24**
Efficacy in learning Chinese	3.42 (0.59)	3.40 (0.62)	3.41 (0.53)	3.48 (0.50)	3.57 (0.57)	3.43 (0.57)	0.96
Academic expectation	4.13 (0.84)	4.02 (1.07)	4.15 (0.84)	4.31 (0.79)	4.35 (2.20)	4.14 (1.07)	1.61
Career expectation	4.07 (0.87)	3.98 (1.30)	4.07 (0.82)	4.11 (0.81)	3.98 (0.82)	4.03 (1.03)	0.37

Note. Cells with matching superscripts have significant differences (p < .05). Standard deviations were listed in parentheses; 25 participants did not provide their ethnic information.

p < .01.

Table 2 reports the correlations among the major variables. An inspection of the table shows that academic outcome expectation is significantly correlated with all ethnic identity variables (r ranged from .20 to .29). It is also positively correlated with learning experience (r = .11, p < .01), and with efficacy in learning Chinese (r = .11jrejee, p < .01). Similar patterns are observed with career expectation, which is positively correlated with all ethnic identity variables (r ranged from .24 to .35), learning experience (r = .15, p < .01), and efficacy in Chinese (r = .11, p < .01). No significant association exists between parental occupations and the two outcome expectation variables.

Table 2.

Correlation Analyses (N = 632 ).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1. Gender (boy = 0, girl = 1)	1.00
2. Age	.07	1.00
3. Father’s occupation	−.14*	−.04	1.00
4. Mother’s occupation	−.05	−.05	.24**	1.00
5. Affirmation and belonging	.11*	−.14**	−.03	−.03	1.00
6. Ethnic identity achievement	.00	−.14**	.00	.00	.51**	1.00
7. Ethnic behaviors	.07	−.07	.05	−.01	.51**	.48**	1.00
8. Learning experience	−.15**	−.14**	.02	−.02	.21**	.29**	.21**	1.00
9. Efficacy in learning Chinese	−.10*	−.07	.03	.06	.14**	.24**	.18**	.46**	1.00
10. Academic expectation	.19**	−.09*	.05	.08	.29**	.20**	.22**	.11**	.11**	1.00
11. Career expectation	.09*	−.10*	.01	.03	.35**	.26**	.24**	.15**	.11**	.58**	1.00

Note: *p<.05, **p<.01

Structural Equation Model (SEM) Testing

To better understand the relative importance of ethnic identity, parental occupations, learning experience, and efficacy in learning Chinese on expectations, we constructed a SEM. In line with SCCT, we modeled ethnic identity (Hypothesis 1) and parental occupation (Hypothesis 2) as predictors of learning experience, which then predicted efficacy in learning Chinese (Hypothesis 3). Learning experience and efficacy in learning Chinese were modeled to predict the two outcomes (Hypothesis 4). Raw scores were used as data input, and maximum likelihood estimation was adopted. Chi-square statistics (χ²), CFI, goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and RMSEA were used to evaluate the model’s goodness of fit. Results show that the model fits the data reasonably well, χ² = 69.91 (df = 22, p > .05), CFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.08. Only ethnic identity achievement is significantly related to learning experience, which is positively related to efficacy in learning Chinese. Efficacy is significantly related to expectations.

Assessment of Alternative Model

Previous studies suggest that ethnic identity (e.g., Gushue, 2006) is directly associated with expectations. Therefore, we constructed an alternative model to test whether ethnic identity would directly predict students’ expectations. To examine the direct effect, three additional paths (i.e., affirmation, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic behaviors to expectations) were added to the study. This alternative model would be adopted if the inclusion of these three direct paths could significantly reduce the overall model misfit (i.e., χ² difference test). Results show that fit is significantly improved after adding the three direct paths (Δχ² = 49.46, df = 3, p < .01). Furthermore, all fit indices of the alternative model are better than the original model (CFI = 0.99, GFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.02). These results suggest that the alternative model (as shown in Figure 1) should be adopted over the original hypothesized model.

Figure 1.

Finalized research model.

Discussion

Our research contributes to the existing literature in two aspects. First, whereas previous studies tended to recruit Western-individualistic participants, our study has extended the application of SCCT model to a more collectivistic cultural setting. Compared with their native Chinese counterparts in Hong Kong, Southeast Asian ethnic minority adolescents often have insufficient knowledge about local education, or are unable to make friends and build their own social support network. Moreover, ethnic minority adolescents are often disadvantaged in career choice and academic development. The unique challenge to such students provides a backdrop for the extension of the SCCT. Our results have provided additional evidence on the generalizability of SCCT model in more interdependent cultural contexts. Although earlier studies suggested that variables such as subject-specific efficacy are significantly related to expectations, our results show that learning the mainstream language (i.e., Chinese) is a particularly salient factor that influences students’ expectations. Second, previous studies tended to emphasize the role of subject-specific efficacy in relation to outcome expectations. In this study, we delineate different sets of personal variables (i.e., ethnic identity and efficacy in learning Chinese) and parental factors in relation to the outcome expectations. Our findings supplement the existing body of research and enrich the understanding of factors that relate to outcome expectations of young adolescents from ethnic minority groups.

Our results show that ethnic identity, particularly ethnic identity achievement, is significantly related to learning experience. This finding is in line with the SCCT and other earlier studies (e.g., Gushue, 2006; Phinney et al., 2001), which show that ethnic minority students who report a strong positive sense of ethnic identity feel more positive about school. Such students believe that school experience is important and useful for their future. A firm identity may have created a strong sense of personal obligation for these individuals to perform well, allowing them to develop an expectation to contribute to their group’s accomplishment (Bandura, 2002). Therefore, this finding supports that students with a more consolidated sense of ethnic identity have more positive experience in their learning, and have a greater base of confidence for future academic endeavors and career choices. Hence, curricula on vocational growth and career counseling should not be limited to the current academic or career preferences of students (Gushue, 2006), but should also consider broader aspects of identity, such as ethnic identity. For example, cultural values in different ethnic groups may be integrated in career counseling or educational classes.

Efficacy in learning Chinese emerges as a significant mediator between ethnic identity and outcome expectations. Loper (2004) suggests that poor Chinese proficiency limits individuals from ethnic minorities to achieve higher academic and job prospects. The results of the present study give further evidence to other local studies that language barrier is an important factor that contributes to the disadvantaged educational advancement and career development of such students. To develop a more positive self-perception of mastering Chinese among these students, more resources and support, such as extra classes in oral and written Chinese, should be offered in mainstream schools in Hong Kong. In addition, schools should also give more recognition to these students’ accomplishment in learning Chinese. These strategies can enhance the students’ learning experience and their self-perception of their ability to understand Chinese.

Furthermore, facilitating a positive learning experience among Southeast Asian students in schools is equally important. Schools can provide peer guidance or assign mentors to support Southeast Asian students to better adjust in their school life. Likewise, curriculum changes should be introduced to enhance learning experience. As Tsung et al. (2010) show, Hong Kong only uses one single Chinese language curriculum, regardless of students’ different language and cultural backgrounds. Considering the competence of Southeast Asian students in using the Chinese language, the Equal Opportunities Commission (2012) recommends the development of an appropriate Chinese Proficiency Program and Testing System to provide an alternative means of assessing language qualification for further academic and professional purposes. By considering the competence of non-Chinese speaking students and addressing their specific learning goals, the new curriculum should benefit this special population to aid in their academic pursuits and future careers.

Finally, we did not find support for the effect of parental occupation on expectations. We however will be hesitant to conclude that parental effects are not important in the vocational behaviors of adolescents. Previous research shows that parents affect their children’s work values and attitudes (e.g., Loughlin & Barling, 2001). Therefore, instead of influencing academic and career expectations of their children, parents may influence the views of their children on future careers through more subtle ways, such as through the transmission of values. Future studies should therefore examine other parental attributes (e.g., work values) that may shape the academic and vocational expectations of adolescents.

Limitations

This study has several limitations, and results should be interpreted with caution. First, given that we have only used self-reported data, it may be subject to common method variance. As such, we strongly suggest that future studies should consider adopting external sources (e.g., ratings of parents and teachers) to address this shortcoming. Furthermore, drawing any casual relations among variables is impossible, given the cross-sectional design of the study. Thus, a longitudinal design is recommended to delineate the casual relations of these variables in affecting academic and career outcome expectations. Third, our focus is primarily on individual factors and parental occupations in relation to outcome expectations, and therefore did not explore other important domains such as parental work values, school environment, and curriculum. Future studies should incorporate these factors to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence students’ expectations. Finally, we did not ask our participants whether they are newly migrated Southeast Asians, Southeast Asians who were born in Hong Kong, or who have already become permanent residents of Hong Kong. The length of stay and different levels of exposure to the mainstream Hong Kong culture (e.g., examination-oriented culture), and their fluency in Chinese, may all invariably affect their goals and motivations, as well as their self-efficacy. Future studies should therefore examine the potential differences among these groups.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Francis Cheung is an associate professor at the Department of Applied Psychology, Lingnan University, Hong Kong. He received his postgraduate diploma in psychology, master of philosophy in industrial and organizational psychology and his doctoral degree at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His current work focues on emotional management in the workplace.

Beatrice P. Y. Lai received her PhD from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. She is currently a lecturer at the Division of Social Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Her research interests include adolescent development and women’s health.

Anise M. S. Wu is currently an associate professor at the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Macau. Her major research is concerned both individual and public health, with specific focuses on addictive behaviors and wellbeing promotion in different age groups.

Lisbeth Ku’s research interests mainly enters on the effects of values on personal and social well being. Her works on school children’s materialistic values orientation and learning motivation has been published in journals such as Journal of Educational Psychology, and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

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