The present research addresses the induction of emotion during music listening in
adults using categorical and dimensional theories of emotion as background. It
further explores the influences of musical preference and absorption trait on
induced emotion. Twenty-five excerpts of classical music representing `happiness',
`sadness', `fear', `anger' and `peace' were presented individually to 99 adult
participants. Participants rated the intensity of felt emotions as well as the
pleasantness and arousal induced by each excerpt. Mean intensity ratings of target
emotions were highest for 20 out of 25 excerpts. Pleasantness and arousal ratings
led to three main clusters within the two-dimensional circumplex space. Preference
for classical music significantly influenced specificity and intensity ratings
across categories. Absorption trait significantly correlated with arousal ratings
only. In sum, instrumental music appears effective for the induction of basic
emotions in adult listeners. However, careful screening of participants in terms of
their musical preferences should be mandatory.
Abeles, H.F.
and
Chung, J.W.
(1996) `Responses to Music', in
D. Hodges
(ed.) Handbook of Music Psychology, pp.
285—342. San
Antonio: IMR Press.
2.
Alpert, J.I.
and
Alpert, M.I.
(1989) `
Background Music as an Influence in Consumer Mood and Advertising
Responses
', Advances in Consumer Research16:
485—91.
3.
Balkwill, L.
and
Thompson, W.F.
(1999) `
A Cross-cultural Investigation of the Perception of Emotion in Music:
Psychophysical and Cultural Cues
', Music Perception17:
43—64.
4.
Bigand, E.
,
Vieillard, S.
,
Madurell, F.
,
Marozeau, J.
and
Dacquet, A.
(2005) `
Multidimensional Scaling of Emotional Responses to Music: The Effect of
Musical Expertise and of the Duration of the Excerpts
', Cognition and Emotion19(8):
1113—39.
5.
Blood, A.J.
and
Zatorre, R.J.
(2001) `
Intensely Pleasurable Responses to Music Correlate with Activity in Brain
Regions Implicated in Reward and Emotion
', Proceedings of the National Advances of Sciences98(20):
11818—23.
6.
Bradley, M.M.
and
Lang, P.J.
(2000) `
Affective Reactions to Acoustic Stimuli
', Psychophysiology37:
204—15.
7.
Brennis, N.C.
(1970) `Mood Differential Responses to Music as Reported by
Secondary Music and Non-music Students from Different Socioeconomic Groups
', PhD dissertation,
University of Miami
, USA.
8.
Brown, S.
,
Martinez, M.
and
Parsons, L.
(2004) `
Passive Music Listening Spontaneously Engages Limbic and Paralimbic
Systems
', NeuroReport15(13):
2033—7.
9.
Campbell, I.G.
(1942) `
Basal Emotional Patterns Expressible in Music
', The American Journal of Psychology55(1):
1—17.
10.
Carlton, L.
and
MacDonald, R.A.R.
(2003) `
An Investigation of the Effects of Music on Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) Interpretations
', Musicae Scientiae Special Issue:
9—30.
11.
Clynes, M.
(1977) Sentics: The Touch of Emotions.
New York:
Doubleday/Anchor.
12.
Dalla Bella, S.
,
Peretz, I.
,
Rousseau, L.
and
Gosselin, N.
(2001) `
A Developmental Study of the Affective Value of Tempo and Mode in
Music
', Cognition80:
B1—B10.
13.
Davidson, J.W.
,
Howe, M.J.A.
and
Sloboda, J.A.
(1997) `Environmental Factors in the Development of Musical
Skill over the Life Span', in
D.J. Hargreaves
and
A.C. North
(eds) The Social Psychology of Music, pp.
188—206.
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
14.
De Vries, B.
(1991) `
Assessment of the Affective Response to Music with Clynes's
Sentograph
', Psychology of Music19(2):
46—64.
15.
Everitt, B.S.
,
Landau, S.
and
Leese, M.
(2001) Cluster Analysis (4th edition).
London:
Arnold.
16.
Gabrielsson, A.
(1993) `On Strong Experiences of Music', in
K.-E. Behne
,
G. Kleinen
and
H. de la Motte-Haber
(eds) Musikpsychologie. Jahrbuch der Deutschen Gesellschaft fuer
Musikpsychologie , Band 10, pp. 114—25.
Wilhemshaven : Florian Noetzel
Verlag.
17.
Gabrielsson, A.
(2001—02) `
Perceived Emotion and Felt Emotion: Same or Different?
' Musicae Scientiae Special Issue:
123—49.
18.
Gabrielsson, A.
and
Lindström, E.
(2001) `The Influence of Musical Structure on Emotional
Expression', in
N.P. Juslin
, and
J.A. Sloboda
(eds) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research, pp.
223—48. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
19.
Gregory, A.H.
and
Varney, N.
(1996) `
Cross-cultural Comparison in the Affective Response to Music
', Psychology of Music24(1):
47—52.
20.
Gupta, U.
and
Gupta, B.S.
(2005) `
Psychophysiological Responsivity to Indian Instrumental Music
', Psychology of Music33(4):
363—72.
21.
Hevner, K.
(1935) `
The Affective Character of the Major and Minor Modes in Music
', American Journal of Psychology47:
103—18.
22.
Hills, P.
and
Argyle, M.
(1998) `
Musical and Religious Experiences and their Relationship to Happiness
', Personality and Individual Differences25:
91—102.
23.
Jürgens, U.
(2002) `
Neural Pathways Underlying Vocal Control
', Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews26(2):
235—58.
24.
Juslin, N.P.
(2001) `Communicating Emotion in Music Performance: A Review
and a Theoretical Framework', in
N.P. Juslin
and
J.A. Sloboda
(eds) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research, pp.
309—40. Oxford
: Oxford University Press.
25.
Juslin, N.P.
and
Laukka, P.
(2003) `
Communication of Emotions in Vocal Expression and Music Performance:
Different Channels, Same Code?
' Psychological Bulletin129(5):
770—814.
26.
Juslin, P.N.
,
Friberg, A.
and
Bresin, R.
(2001—02) `
Toward a Computational Model of Expression in Performance: The GERM
Model
', Musicae Scientiae Special Issue:
63—122.
27.
Juslin, N.P.
and
Sloboda, J.A.
(2001) Music and Emotion. Theory and Research.
New York: Oxford University
Press.
28.
Kemp, A.
(1997) `Individual Differences in Musical Behavior', in
D.J. Hargreaves
and
A.C. North
(eds) The Social Psychology of Music, pp.
25—45. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
29.
Khalfa, S.
,
Peretz, I.
,
Blondin, J.-P.
and
Manon, R.
(2002) `
Event-related Skin Conductance to Musical Emotions in Humans
', Neuroscience Letters328(2):
145—9.
30.
Kivy, P.
(1990) Music Alone: Philosophical Reflections on the Purely
Musical Experience. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
31.
Koelsch, S.
,
Schröger, E.
and
Tervaniemi, M.
(1999) `
Superior Pre-attentive Auditory Processing in Musicians
', Neuroreport10(6):
1309—13.
32.
Koelsch, S.
,
Gunter, T.
,
Friederici, A.D.
and
Schröger, E.
(2000) `
Brain Indices of Music Processing: “Nonmusicians” are
Musical
', Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience12(3):
520—41.
33.
Kreutz, G.
(2002) `
“Jede Sehnsucht hat eine Melodie.” Basisemotionen in
der Musik und im Alltag' (`Every longing carries a melody': Basic emotions
in music and everyday life)
, Musikpsychologie16:
66—83.
34.
Kreutz, G.
,
Bongard, S.
and
von Jussis, J.
(2002) `
Kardiovaskuläre Wirkungen beim Musikhören. Zur
Bedeutung von musikalischer Expertise und Emotion' [`Cardiovascular
responses to music listening: On the influences of musical expertise and
emotion']
, Musicae Scientiae6(2):
257—78.
35.
Kreutz, G.
,
Russ, M.O.
,
Bongard, S.
and
Lanfermann, H.
(2003)
`Zerebrale Korrelate des Musikhörens. Eine fMRT-Studie zur
Wirkung “fröhlicher” und
“trauriger” klassischer Musik' [`Cerebral correlation
of music listening. An fMRI-Study on the Effects of
“happy” and “sad” classical
music']
, Nervenheilkunde6:
51—6.
36.
Kreutz, G.
,
Ott, U.
and
Vaitl, D.
(2006)
`Spezifität des emotionalen Ausdrucks klassischer
Musikstücke: Ergebnisse einer Befragung von Musikstudenten'
[`Specificity of the emotional expression of classical music: Results of a
group study']
, Musikpsychologie18:
104—24.
37.
Krumhansl, C.L.
(1997) `
An Exploratory Study of Musical Emotions and Psychophysiology
', Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology51:
336—52.
38.
Lewis, B.E.
and
Schmidt, C.P.
(1991) `
Listeners' Responses to Music as a Function of Personality Type
', Journal of Research in Music Education39:
311—21.
39.
Lindström, E.
,
Juslin, P.N.
,
Bresin, R.
and
Williamon, A.
(2002) `“
Expressivity Comes from within your Soul”: A Questionnaire Study
of Music Students' Perspectives on Expressivity
', Research Studies in Music Education20:
23—47.
40.
McNamara, L.
and
Ballard, M.E.
(1999) `
Resting Arousal, Sensation Seeking, and Musical Preference', Genetic,
Social and GeneralPsychological Monographs125:
229—50.
41.
Miller, M.M.
and
Strongman, K.T.
(2002) `
The Emotional Effects of Music on Religious Experience: A Study of the
Pentecostal-Charismatic Style of Music and Worship
', Psychology of Music30(1):
8—27.
42.
Nair, D.G.
,
Large, E.W.
,
Steinberg, F.
and
Kelso, J.A.S.
(2002) `
Perceiving Emotion in Expressive Piano Performance: A Functional-MRI
Study
', in C. Stevens, D. Burnham, G. McPherson , E. Schubert, J. Renwick (eds)
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Music and
Cognition, pp. 627—30. Adelaide : Causal
Productions.
43.
Nater, U.M.
,
Krebs, M.
and
Ehlert, U.
(2005) `
Sensation Seeking, Music Preference, and Psychophysiological Reactivity to
Music
' Musicae Scientiae9(2):
224—38.
44.
North, A.C.
and
Hargreaves, D.J.
(1997) `
Liking, Arousal Potential, and the Emotions Expressed by Music
', Scandinavian Journal of Psychology38:
45—53.
45.
Nyklicek, I.
,
Thayer, J.F.
and
van Doornen, L.J.P.
(1997) `
Cardiorespiratory Differentiation of Musically-induced Emotions', Journal
ofPsychophysiology11:
304—21.
46.
Ortony, A.
and
Turner, T.J.
(1990) `
What's Basic about Basic Emotions?
', Psychological Review97:
315—31.
47.
Panksepp, J.
(1995) `
The Emotional Sources of “Chills' Induced by Music
', Music Perception13:
171—207.
48.
Panksepp, J.
and
Bernatzky, G.
(2001) `
Emotional Sounds and the Brain: The Neuro-affective Foundations of Musical
Appreciation
', Behavioral Processes60:
133—55.
49.
Peretz, I.
,
Gagnon, L.
and
Bouchard, B.
(1998) `
Music and Emotion: Perceptual Determinants, Immediacy and Isolation after
Brain Damage
', Cognition68:
111—41.
50.
Ritossa, D.A.
and
Rikkard, N.S.
(2004) `
The Relative Utility of “Pleasantness” and
“Liking” Dimensions in Predicting the Emotions
Expressed by Music
', Psychology of Music32:
5—22.
51.
Ritz, T.
and
Dahme, B.
(1995) `
Die Absorption-Skala: Konzeptuelle Aspekte, psychometrische Kennwerte und
Dimensionalität einer deutschsprachigen Adaption' (The absorption
scale: Conceptual aspects, psychometric evaluation, and dimensionality of a
German adaptation)
, Diagnostica41:
53—61.
52.
Robazza, C.
,
Macaluso, C.
and
d'Urso, V.
(1994) `
Emotional Reactions to Music by Gender, Age, and Expertise
', Perceptual and Motor Skills79:
939—44.
53.
Russell, J.A.
(1980) `
A Circumplex Model of Affect
', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39:
1161—78.
54.
Scherer, K.R.
and
Oshinsky, J.
(1977) `
Cue Utilization in Emotion Attribution from Auditory Stimuli
', Motivation and Emotion1:
331—46.
55.
Sloboda, J.A.
(1991) `
Music Structure and Emotional Response: Some Empirical Findings
', Psychology of Music19(2):
110—20.
56.
Sloboda, J.A.
and
Juslin, N.P.
(2001) `Psychological Perspectives on Music and Emotion
', in
N.P. Juslin
and
J.A. Sloboda
(eds) Music and Emotion: Theory and Research, pp.
71—104. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
57.
Sloboda, J.A.
and
Lehmann, A.C.
(2001) `
Tracking Performance Correlates of Changes in Perceived Intensity of
Emotion During Different Interpretations of a Chopin Piano Prelude
', Music Perception19(1):
87—120.
58.
Sloboda, J.A.
,
O'Neill, S.A.
and
Ivaldi, I.
(2001) `
Functions of Music in Everyday Life: An Exploratory Study using the
Experience Sampling Method
', Musicae Scientiae5(1):
9—32.
59.
Smith, J.
(1999) `Movie Music as Moving Music: Emotion, Cognition, and
the Film Score', in
C. Plantinga
and
G.M. Smith
(eds) Passionate Views: Film, Cognition, and Emotion, pp.
146—67. Baltimore,
MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press.
60.
Snodgrass, M.
and
Lynn, S.J.
(1989) `
Music Absorption and Hypnotizability
', International Journal for Clinical Experimental Hypnosis37:
41—54.
61.
Sopchak, A.L.
(1955) `
Individual Differences in Responses to Music
', Psychology Monograph69(11):
1—20.
62.
Tellegen, A.
and
Atkinson, G.
(1974) `
Openness to Absorbing and Self-altering Experiences (`Absorption'), a Trait
Related to Hypnotic Susceptibility
', Journal of Abnormal Psychology83:
268—77.
63.
Thaut, M.H.
and
Davis, W.B.
(1993) `
The Influence of Subject-Selected versus Experimenter-Chosen Music on
Affect, Anxiety and Relaxation
', Journal of Music Therapy30:
210—23.
64.
Thayer, J.
and
Faith, M.
(2001) `
A Dynamic Systems Model of Musically Induced Emotions: Physiological and
Self-Report Evidence
', Annals of the New York Academy of Science930:
452—56.
65.
Västfjäll, D.
(2001—02) `
A Review of the Musical Mood Induction Procedure
', Musicae Scientiae Special Issue:
173—212.
66.
Wallach, M.A.
and
Greenberg, C.
(1960) `
Personality Functions of Symbolic Sexual Arousal to Music
', Psychological Monographs: General and Applied74(7): whole issue.
67.
Webster, G.D.
and
Weir, C.G.
(2005) `
Emotional Responses to Music: Interactive Effects of Mode, Texture, and
Tempo
', Motivation and Emotion29(1):
19—39.
68.
Wild, T.C.
,
Kuiken, D.
and
Schopflocher, D.
(1995) `
The Role of Absorption in Experiental Involvement
', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology69(3):
569—79.
69.
Winold, A.C.
(1963) `The Effects of Changes in Harmonic Tension upon
Listener Response', PhD dissertation,
Indiana University
, USA.
