Combined flow in musical jam sessions: A pilot qualitative study

Abstract

Despite extensive research into the phenomenon of flow, there has been a comparative deficit in literature relating to the experience of shared or combined flow. This pilot study explored the subjective experience of combined flow in musical jam sessions, with particular emphasis on delineating the characteristics, outcomes, and practical applications unique to combined flow. In-depth semi-structured interviews were held with six musicians who had extensive experience of group jam sessions. Grounded theory analysis of interview data identified two major themes; the experience of combined flow as a sequential progression through a set of stages; and the inter-subjectivity of the experience leading to the development of empathy between group members. A major finding was that the combined flow experience discussed by musicians met many of the criteria for classification as a flow experience, while also having the unique positive outcome of empathy development.

Keywords

combined flow empathy flow group flow improvisation musical jams

Although a potentially extremely important and interesting psychological phenomenon, combined flow has remained relatively under-theorized (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984; Nakumara & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). To date there is a deficit of research that addresses the potential emergent qualities unique to combined flow, or examines combined flow with respect to dimensions, dynamics, conditions, applications or effects.

The current research aims to address this gap in the literature through a preliminary qualitative exploration of the subjective experience of combined flow in musical jam sessions. As flow is a labyrinthine, subjective psychological state, with complex, multidimensional core dimensions, Csikszentmihalyi asserts that any quantitative measure of flow we create will only be ‘a partial reflection of this reality’ (1992, p. 183). As such it is important that any preliminary analysis of combined flow recognizes the pitfalls of over-simplification and data reduction associated with quantitative research. The current study attempts to avoid such pitfalls by preliminarily examining the complexities of the phenomenon of combined flow through qualitative analysis.

The objectives of this study are three-fold. Firstly, it seeks to establish whether the characteristics associated with individual flow are evident in the related phenomenon of combined flow, thus justifying the use of the label ‘flow’ to characterize such a phenomenon. Secondly, this study aims to reveal potential qualities that are unique to the phenomenon of combined flow, with respect to dimensions, dynamics, conditions and applications. Thirdly, this research aims to form a springboard for further exploration of the dimensions and potential applications of the phenomenon of combined flow.

Flow state

Flow is a term that describes a subjective mental state in which an individual becomes fully immersed in an activity and experiences feelings of energized focus, deep involvement, and success in the process of the activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). In colloquial terms, this state is often referred to as being on the ball, in the groove, or in the zone (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Activities that promote such an experience are thought to be autotelic, intrinsically rewarding, and ‘self justifying’ (Nakumara & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005, p. 96).

Over the past three decades, extensive research undertaken by Csikszentmihalyi (1990; 1998; 2002), and others (e.g., Boniface, 2000; Ellis, Voelkl, & Morris, 1994; Jackson, 1996; and Jackson & Marsh, 1996), has resulted in the delineation of nine defining characteristics of the subjective experience of flow (see Table 1). Research in a variety of contexts including art and science (Csiksentmihalyi, 1996), sport (Jackson, 1996) and music (Wrigley & Emmerson, 2011) has demonstrated that the flow concept, as defined by these nine characteristics, is remarkably robust, and linear across culture, class, gender, age and variety of activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

Table 1.

Characteristics of the Flow State as identified by Boniface (2000), Csikszentmihalyi (1990), Ellis, Voelkl and Morris (1994), Jackson (1996), and Jackson and Marsh (1996).

Dimension of the Flow State	Description of the dimension
Challenge-skill balance	The requirement that there be a balance between ability and the demands of the task.
Action-awareness merging	A lack of awareness of self as separate from the actions being performed.
Clear goals	Goals either set in advance or developed out of involvement in the activity are clearly defined.
Unambiguous feedback	Clear and immediate feedback concerning performance in relation to the goal(s) set.
Concentration on the task at hand	Narrowing of focus and the centring of attention on a limited stimulus field.
A sense of control	A sense of exercising control without actually trying to be in control.
Loss of self-consciousness	Concern for the self disappears and the person becomes one with the activity.
Transformation of time	A loss of time awareness or time disorientation.
Autotelic experience	An intrinsically rewarding experience involving a deep sense of enjoyment.

Since the initial coining of the term, evidence for positive correlates of the flow experience has rapidly accumulated. For example, research has linked flow experience with persistence in an activity (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005), self-esteem (Adlai-Gail, 1994), skill development, (O’Neill, 1999), physical health (Patton, 1999) and protection against negative outcomes (Schmidt, 1998). Delineation of potential positive outcomes of the flow experience has led to increased research into the possible practical applications of such a phenomenon. Educational settings for example, provide a clear avenue for application of findings. Students could benefit from a learning environment that encourages flow experiences, thus promoting the growth of skills and fostering an intrinsic enjoyment in the process of learning (Whitson & Consoli, 2009).

The phenomenon of flow has also gained the attention of various other fields within the wider realm of psychology, for instance in psychotherapy (Grafanaki, Brennan, Holmes, Tang & Alvarez, 2007) and in psychiatric interventions informed by flow theory (Inghilleri, 1999). The use of flow principles in therapeutic settings rejects the classical focus on conflict in favour of a reorientation towards building on interests and strengths and enabling the individual to reduce dysphoric, or melancholic experience as a by-product of this growth (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005).

This emphasis on positive outcomes in flow theory reflects a wider paradigm shift within psychology. In particular this paradigm is defined by an increase in the importance of facilitating a model of the individual as a proactive, self-regulating organism interacting with the environment (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). This framework, commonly known as positive psychology (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005), has proven highly compatible with the model of psychological functioning and development currently surrounding the flow concept.

Flow and music

Musical performance has been recognized as providing a clear platform for the subjective state of flow (Custodero, 2002; Lamont, 2012). A recent study by Wrigley and Emmerson (2011) examined the state of flow in live music performance. The Flow State Scale-2, measuring the nine-dimensional model of flow as delineated in Table 1, was administered to 236 students. Results showed the flow experience in musical performance to be consistent with that reported in sports performance. Wrigley and Emmerson’s (2011) research therefore provided evidence in favour of the reliability and validity of the flow model as a tool to describe the experience of live music performance.

Interest in researching the areas of flow, music, and positive psychology is continuing to grow. For example Diaz (2013) investigated flow, mindfulness, and musical listening, and research by MacDonald, Byrne and Carlton (2006) examined flow and creativity in musical composition. However, in comparison to other areas such as sports (Jackson & Kimiecik, 2008; Kimiecik & Stein, 1992), the experience of flow in the context of musical performance remains relatively under researched (Wrigley & Emmerson, 2011).

In addition, findings relating to the phenomenon of flow in musical settings consistently place the individual at the centre of analysis. Other participants, if included at all, have often been conceptualized as sources of challenge/competition or included solely for feedback purposes. For example, in a cross-sectional study conducted by Bloom and Skutnick-Henley (2005), a sample of 90 classical musicians completed a mail-in survey, containing numeric rating and write-in items, seeking to measure flow proneness, an idea conceptualized as a musician’s ability to reach a state of flow while playing his/her instrument of choice. Although 45% of documented flow experiences occurred while playing in an ensemble, the study focussed on the dimensions of the experience of individual flow, rather than examining the experience of sharing this optimal experience with other members of the ensemble.

In fact, few studies have addressed the concept of combined or shared flow. This concept is currently characterized by group activities such as ‘hot groups,’ (defined as absorbing, vital and hard-working interactive teams or task forces; Lipman-Bluman & Leavitt, 1999), and musical jam sessions (Csikszentmihalyi & Rich, 1998). In these groups it is expected that all those involved are experiencing the nine characteristics of individual flow while concurrently engaging in a shared goal-oriented activity (Lipman-Bluman & Leavitt, 1999). As such, it has been suggested that group flow is different from individual flow in group settings, where co-participants may or may not be in flow (Nakumara & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). The current paper seeks to contribute to discussion in this area through an investigation of the first-person experience of combined flow.

Method

Participants

Participants were six adults (four male, two female) aged between 20 and 22 years (M = 21). Participants had a minimum of 8 years’ experience of regularly playing music in a group setting, and at the time of interview played in at least two group jam sessions per week. Participants were students from a variety of disciplines studying at University College Cork, and were recruited through word of mouth.

Procedure

Informal interviews, each lasting approximately one hour, were conducted with participants. Semi-structured, ‘funnel-like’ interviewing style was facilitated (Fassinger, 2005, p. 159), moving from broader to more specific questions through the course of each interview. Each participant gave informed consent before the interview commenced. Interviews were conducted in the participants’ own homes, with only the primary investigator and participant present.

The primary investigator transcribed interviews verbatim. It has been recognized in recent literature that the transcription of interview data provides the foundational step for the analytic process, as well as providing a powerful tool of representation (Oliver, Serovich, & Mason, 2005). To allow analysis to focus on the meanings and perceptions contained in the data, a denaturalized style of transcription was facilitated in the current study (Schegloff, 1997). Laughter in the interview, however, was included during transcription, as it was believed that removing it may lead to misinterpretation of data due to a loss of context.

Triangulation in qualitative studies refers to completeness rather than convergence (Madill, Jordan, & Shirley, 2000; Smith, 2008). To promote triangulation in the current research a participant observation session was also conducted in the home of one of the participants. The primary investigator took part in a musical jam with five other musicians and wrote observations in a narrative style directly after the session.

Transcribed interview and observational data was analysed using constructivist Grounded Theory methodology as delineated by Corbin & Strauss (1990). Analysis consisted of three major stages; initial coding, focus coding, and selective coding (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). These stages comprised a reductive and inductive process as the data was broken down, qualitatively examined, compared, conceptualized, and categorized. This highly structured process allowed exploration of the data from emic and etic viewpoints, while avoiding misrepresentation of data by grounding the resultant theory in reality. Each newly emerged concept was considered provisional until thoroughly established through constant comparison between and within interview data (Charmaz, 2000, 2006).

Results and analysis

Two overriding themes form the core theoretical findings of the current study:

The idea that musicians experience a group jam as a progression through a sequence of separately definable stages.

The theory that the inter-subjective nature of a group jam leads to empathy development between group members.

This section presents the analysis of the five major categories underlying the major theoretical findings of the current study.

Finding a niche

Musicians consistently described a need to feel both comfortable and valued in a specific role or position within the group jam setting. The following extracts exemplify how musicians described a need to fulfil a role that they enjoy and feel comfortable in, but also that they feel is making an important contribution to the group as a collective.

I love playing bass because it’s so beautifully simple like, but am just as a really cool sound where you really do feel like you’re adding something to the music. (Musician 5)

I did really fight for my right to come up with my own stuff, I’m fairly adamant that I have my input, I think everyone should contribute, I don’t want to be a guy who’s told what to play. (Musician 2)

Musicians expressed the opinion that each group member should introduce his/her own unique and individual input to the group, thus retaining a sense of importance and a sense of personal identity; only when each individual finds their own unique way to contribute to a group can a group jam progress. The current analysis termed this consistently recurring idea as ‘finding a niche.’

Breaking on through

The label ‘breaking on through’ refers directly to the moment described by musicians when a group finds common ground, where separate become collective, and inchoate becomes choate.

Musicians discussed the need to match skill levels in order to reach this point. For example, Musician 3 discussed the idea that a group is most likely to become open to each other, and move towards cohesiveness, when the skill levels of members are similar.

It’s not much fun when you’re playing with very inexperienced people, it kind of feels like you’re dragging them along and it can be fun but you don’t really get that same buzz off it. And then if you’re playing with people who are way better than you it can be a bit intimidating and not just intimidating but also quite hard, and it’s hard to get into something and enjoy it if you’re struggling to keep up. (Musician 3)

The above extract illustrates the idea that in order for each individual role to be valued by the group, it is advantageous that each group member shares a similar level of skill. If skill levels are not matched, individuals may become intimidated or insecure about there own contributions. For example, in the following extracts, musicians talked about anxiety or feelings of intimidation as characteristics they associate with the early stages of a jam.

You could get anxiety at the start maybe, depending on who you’re with because you could not know, you could be let’s say totally disassociated with the guitar. I think the more nerves you have the less it flows out, the less the rolling of it like and the flowing of it. (Musician 4)

It can be very intimidating if you’re playing with someone for the first time and am you don’t know what’s going to happen you don’t know how good they are how well their style would go with you, and what do they think of your playing. (Musician 5)

The above extracts exemplify how musicians suggested that anxiety, or an increase in self-consciousness during the initial stages of a jam, can damage the creative process. They also suggest that this early anxiety potentially stems from a fear that skill levels may not be matched. However, individual fears must be overcome in order for the whole group to progress.

You’ve to break through boundaries and everything you have to lose inhibitions like in order to play together and like not be judgemental like and you have to just have a complete open mind (Musician 5).

An interesting idea discussed relating to these early inhibitions was that spontaneity may be instrumental in reducing early fear and anxiety.

Often I don’t know when a jam is going to start so I can’t really have any feelings before it. (Musician 3)

In the above extract, Musician 3 suggested that when a jam happens spontaneously, there is no time to develop anxiety, thus suggesting that increasing spontaneity appears to be a shortcut to overcoming initial anxiety. The result of overcoming initial individual difficulties and anxieties is discussed in terms of a moment when the jam comes together, and forms something greater than the sum of its parts.

It often starts with one small thing that you already have and then just if you click with that person the idea is that it will just bounce back and forwards and it’ll turn into something. (Musician 5)

I guess you just hit a certain moment when it seems like no one is really trying anymore it’s like am just happening and everyone is just riding this feeling. (Musician 2)

The above extracts illustrate the common viewpoint amongst the musicians that, at a certain moment in a group jam, individuals lose their inhibitions and everything falls into place, a phenomenological concept referred to in the current analysis as ‘breaking on through’.

Finding the group groove

A common point of discussion amongst musicians was the climax or optimum experience of a group jam. In the current analysis this recurring theme is subsumed under the category of ‘Finding the group groove.’ Musicians associated this climactic stage with a combination of seemingly contradictory feelings, coupled with a sense of forward momentum and an acknowledgment of the transience and fragility of the phenomenon. For example, participants described feeling deeply connected while also disconnected, and emptying of all thought and emotion, while simultaneously being completely immersed in the present moment.

Once you have a sort of pattern created, or you know everyone has sort of gotten into their groove or whatever that they enter, it’s like the train going onto the tracks like, it just keeps on you know like, and it just keeps on going down the road where you don’t know where you’re going. (Musician 4)

The suggestion in this extract that ‘it’s like the train going onto the tracks’ connotes the idea of a break-through moment that was discussed in the previous section, while also creating a sense of energy and propulsion. The final statement in the above extract, ‘it just keeps on going down the road where you don’t know where you’re going’, alludes to a concept that recurred throughout the data, namely, that each individual becomes so immersed in climax of the experience, that their minds become empty of thought and emotion. This idea is reiterated in the following passages.

I don’t think really you feel a lot of emotion at all in that situation, emotionally you’re just kind of floating. (Musician 3)

It’s like kind of instead of it being what is it, it’s kind of what is it not, the kind of non emotion. It’s just calmness and just freedom from just freedom from your everyday thoughts, just kind of just concentrating, just focussing, just putting all your attention on something and kind of getting the most out of it. (Musician 1)

The above passages reflect a common theme expressed in the data, that while deeply immersed in and focussed on the climax of the jam, the usual ‘everyday’ thoughts and emotions move away from the foreground of consciousness. This idea of being simultaneously focussed and free of thought is related to another apparently commonly described aspect of the phenomenon of combined flow in a musical jam, the feeling of being both connected and disconnected to other group members. In the following extracts for example, musicians described feeling deeply connected to the other group members, while simultaneously feeling mentally removed or separate from the collective experience.

The way I see it it’s like being connected and disconnected at once. It’s like you are all part of this one thing but also like you aren’t really a part of anything you’re in some kind of in between. (Musician 3)

I was no longer aware of each person’s contribution to the sound, rather simply of a great wave of sound swirling around me. My hands played on but my mind paused, separating away from the group into a sort of nothingness, a sort of floating. (Participant observation)

The above extract captures the idea that, while deeply immersed and inter-connected on one level, on another level each group member feels that he/she retains his/her individuality and separateness. This is an unusual combination of feelings, and one that many participants found difficult to describe thus consistently relying on metaphor, simile or comparison in an attempt to illustrate the apparently contradictory nature of the experience. For example, Musician 4 compares the experience of being at the apex of a musical jam to mind altering drugs, and to various types of meditation.

Ah how could I describe that feeling, um I think I’d need a guitar [laughs]. It’s absolutely indescribable like it’s am I suppose it’s comparable to like break on through like, or like LSD or like well certain people get it off that but like Buddhist monks get it like, people who practice meditation get it, and everyone will tell you it’s basically about being still and one and inside yourself (Musician 4)

The following extract attributes greater meaning to these comparisons.

It’s just above the realms of what we normally go by, like on our standards in the world or the planet or the universe or anywhere really. Walk above like it’s just it’s just mental like and it’s just I dunno it’s hard to describe maybe because when you’re in it in the now in the one thing together buzzing like you’re not appreciating it or not not appreciating it you know, you’re not doing either and that’s how I’d describe it. You’re actually in complete stillness and it’s like you know being able to drive a car with a blindfold on. (Musician 4)

This passage reiterates the idea of being deeply connected and immersed in the experience through the words ‘in the one thing together buzzing.’ Yet it simultaneously recaptures the idea of retaining a sense of individuality, and having the ability to become still, or to become an observer of events as they unfold. However musicians also expressed an awareness of the fragility and transience of this climactic stage. The perceived delicacy of the process is captured by the following extract.

I mean even the simplest of songs can be screwed up if someone’s on the wrong time change or coming in early or something you know it takes a lot for everything to click, and everything has to click. (Musician 2)

This comment highlights the lack of durability of the process of combined flow, suggesting that one mistake can damage the process irrevocably, knocking the group out of its ‘groove.’ This fragility is also reflected in the way in which participants describe the climactic stage of the jam as particularly transient or fleeting. For example, the following extract demonstrates the fragility of the apex of the experience.

Like the centre point, like the fulcrum of what everybody’s mind is together or something you know and then you usually hit one wrong note or something, ‘cause at the end of the day you’re still playing the guitar and you can mess it up like [laughs]. (Musician 4)

It appears that the fragility of the process results in its brevity. However, as the climax of the experience comes to an end the group moves towards the penultimate stage of combined flow, categorized in the current study under the heading of ‘bridging sound to silence.’

Bridging sound to silence

Musicians commonly discussed a penultimate stage of a group jam, where they are still immersed in the phenomenological experience but are no longer playing at optimal level. This theme was discussed in terms of two distinct, yet inter-related experiences. The first of these is a sense of moving away from the connectedness of the previous stage, feeling the memory of the experience slipping away, and being left only with a lingering sense of wonder at the phenomenon that just unfolded. The second is a feeling of being rewarded for partaking in the experience, which in turn seems to help to fill the void left by the cessation of the activity.

The following extract highlights how the climax of the experience can come to a sudden, unexpected conclusion.

It’s like your feet are pulled from under you and you’re plunged back into reality. (Musician 3)

The details of the subjective experience seem to slip away from participants.

It’s weird cause it’s like I can’t trace what I just did [laughs] it’s like there’s a memory that you should have but you can’t find. (Musician 5)

You’re like wow did I actually get that, like how did that come out of me like, where did it come from you know. It’s very hard to understand when you snap out of it where it came from. (Musician 4)

However, the lack of a clear memory of the subjective experience of the climactic stage does not appear to reduce the pleasure associated with this stage of the process.

Usually people would just be jamming some night and like they might play the best stuff ever and they won’t remember it and that’s a quality that makes it special. It’s something that’s happening now and we might not remember it tomorrow and it sounds great but you know it doesn’t matter we’re not trying to sell this, we’re not trying to make money out of this or give it polish you know it’s not really about that. (Musician 1)

The above extract highlights the recurring idea that musicians viewed the extrinsic product of the experience, the music itself, as an epiphenomenon that is secondary in importance to the experiential phenomenon of a group jam. In fact, musicians more commonly discussed intrinsic rewards associated with this stage of the experience. For example, participants consistently reported feeling a combination of pride and elation immediately after the cessation of a jam.

Well pride I suppose, like pride or like kind of just a pure happiness after it, like you could nearly give someone a high five like, you’d be like yeah like that was unbelievable you know and you just kind of feel like I can’t believe it’s raised you off the platform of human. (Musician 4)

This combination of gratifying emotions often appears to be commingled with a general sense that the experience was salubrious, invigorating and beneficial.

Am yeah I’d say it has the benefits of physically and mentally relaxing you, like I said you can really focus your attention for a good amount of time and I think like it could change my mood, it really could like it could change the whole mood of the room. (Musician 1)

I think it’s more in my chest I feel it more in my chest after like a really good jam kind of just kind of actual feeling like of I dunno even the way you’re breathing after it. (Musician 5)

These extracts exemplify the idea that although the penultimate stage of the phenomenon of combined flow is anticlimactic, it is far from being entirely unpleasant. It is marked by a sense of returning to normality, where the dissipation of the climactic ‘group groove’ is replaced by a feeling of well-being, a sense of achievement and relaxation. In fact it is the concept of sharing these rewards, and thus retaining an element of the connectedness forged during the earlier stages, that has formed the core of the final major category to emerge from the current analysis.

Sharing highs and lows

Musicians commonly expressed the idea that combined with a general feeling of well-being, the void left by the dissipation of the climactic stage is often filled by a deep sense of empathy between participants. The development of empathy or affinity between group members appears to be directly related to participants’ conceptualization of the experience as aggregate, mutual, or shared. For example, the following extracts highlight the idea that musicians feel that during a group jam session they become part of something larger than themselves.

Well I guess you feel like a part of something like a part of this little universe in the living room. (Musician 3)

You and the other person, or however many people, again that’s if it’s good, you become one thing. (Musician 3)

Musicians further discussed the idea that not only do they feel that the high points of the process are shared experiences, but they also share in the low points of the subjective experience. Sharing the blame for mistakes seems to reduce self-consciousness and self-criticism.

I suppose that’s well there’s no reason to be embarrassed because if something goes wrong you’re not the only one. (Musician 2)

In conceptualizing the experience of combined flow as an inter-personal, mutual experience, musicians commonly referred to the development of empathetic feelings between group members.

I suppose after a jam like that you just feel like something really intimate has just happened between you, and you definitely feel an affinity with the people you’re playing with. (Musician 3)

Sometimes the jam can kind of bring people together in a way that you kind of don’t need to be having a big conversation to kind of move into relaxation . . . it just sort of brings a kind of warmth to everybody. (Musician 1)

You’re getting really into it and it just stops like that’s that’s the most amazing thing like and it’s almost like telepathy there is definitely a sense that you both know something that you can’t talk about. (Musician 5)

Musicians expressed the idea that the shared experience of a musical jam can reduce antipathy, animosity, or distance between group members.

Often whatever argument you were having or whatever problem you might have with that person like you just don’t care about at all when you’re playing with them like and afterwards the problem doesn’t seem like it matters at all. (Musician 5)

The above extracts exemplify the view consistently expressed by musicians that the shared nature of the experiential phenomenon of a group jam session results in a dissipation of antipathy, an escalation of mutual relaxation and a marked increase in empathy between group members.

Conclusion

A primary objective of the current research was to establish whether the characteristics associated with individual flow are also core characteristics of the phenomenological experience of combined flow in a musical jam session, thus justifying the use of the label ‘flow’ to characterise such a phenomenon.

Of the nine core characteristics of the experience of individual flow, as delineated by Boniface (2000), Csikszentmihalyi (1990), Ellis et al. (1994), Jackson (1996), and Jackson and Marsh (1996) (See Table 1), seven have emerged in the current study as core characteristics of the experience of combined flow. These are ‘challenge-skill balance,’ ‘action-awareness merging,’ ‘concentration on the task at hand,’ ‘sense of control,’ ‘loss of self-consciousness,’ ‘transformation of time’ and ‘autotelic experience.’ The following section will discuss how each of these characteristics of individual flow was evident within the categories that emerged in the current analysis of combined flow.

Characteristics of combined flow

Challenge-skill balance

The idea of the ‘challenge-skill balance,’ often conceptualized as the most central, salient and robust aspect of both the original and currently accepted flow models (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), emerged as a central tenet in the current research. Similarly to St. John’s (2006) findings with a child sample, adult participants in the current study consistently alluded to the idea that ability must be balanced against the demands of the task in hand in order for the combined flow state to materialize.

For example, as discussed in the analysis section, the themes of ‘Finding a niche’ and ‘Breaking on through’ suggested that each individual must find a particular role in the group where they feel neither bored nor anxious, but comfortable and valued, before the group as a whole can progress to the next stage. This idea mirrors the ‘challenge-skill balance’ concept that is widely accepted as a central tenet of the experience of individual flow (Voelkl & Ellis, 1998).

Action-awareness merging

The concept of ‘Action-awareness merging’ is recognized as an aspect of individual flow characterized by a lack of awareness of the self, coupled with deep involvement in an activity, and resulting in increased spontaneity (Boniface, 2000; Jackson & Marsh, 1996). In the current study, as discussed in the analysis section, the concept of losing self-consciousness, while concurrently increasing group involvement and group awareness, emerged during formation of the theme ‘Breaking on through.’

Interestingly however whereas Boniface (2000) and Jackson and Marsh (1996) conceptualize spontaneity as a product of the loss of self-consciousness, the current analysis revealed that increased spontaneity was in fact instrumental in encouraging individuals to lose such inhibitions. Further research may therefore be necessary to clarify the causal relationship between these two characteristics.

Concentration on the task at hand

The theme ‘Breaking on through’ captured the idea expressed by participants of concurrently feeling both focussed and free of thought. This idea is easily comparable to what Boniface (2000), Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and Ellis et al. (1994) refer to as ‘Concentration on the task at hand.’ Sawyer (2007) identified a correlate of this state in jazz ensembles that he termed ‘complete concentration.’ Boniface (2000) defines this concept as the funnelling of an individual’s attention onto a ‘limited stimulus field’ (p. 60), therefore allowing that individual to become intimately connected with the task at hand while simultaneously disconnected from extraneous distractions.

Sense of control

Another widely recognized characteristic of the phenomenon of flow is described in Table 1 as having a ‘Sense of Control.’ Jackson (1996) suggests that having a sense of control over one’s own actions, while not attempting to take control over the entire situation, is a primary characteristic of the experience of individual flow. This idea also emerged in the current research. During analysis of the theme ‘Finding a niche,’ participants expressed a common desire to feel that they are in charge of, or are the agents of, their own unique contributions to the collective sound during a group jam.

Loss of self-consciousness

In the current study, the concept of losing self-consciousness emerged during the formation of the theme ‘Breaking on through.’ Musicians in the current study discussed the importance of losing self-consciousness. Musicians described initial anxiety and self-consciousness as they commenced a group jam, and commonly suggested that this must be disregarded in order to allow the jam to progress. This is comparable to the lack of self-consciousness that Boniface (2000) and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) posit is necessary for the phenomenon of individual flow.

Transformation of time

According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), the funnelling of awareness characteristic of flow is often coupled with a loss of awareness of time, a transformation of time, or ‘time disorientation’ (Boniface, 2000, p. 60). This concept emerged in the current study during analysis of the theme that captured the experiential process of the cessation of the climactic stage of the experience, namely ‘Bridging sound to silence.’ This theme captured the recurring sentiment expressed by participants that, as the group jam comes to a close, the details of the subjective experience become difficult to remember.

Autotelic experience

A final clear comparison that can be drawn between the generally recognized characteristics of individual flow and the emergent characteristics of combined flow is the idea of intrinsic reward and ‘autotelic experience.’ The individual flow experience has been consistently characterized by the idea that it is intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). In comparison, a number of categories subsumed under the theme of ‘Bridging sound to silence’ suggest that participants see the musical product of group jamming as an epiphenomenon, and are more likely to discuss the immediate intrinsic rewards of group jamming, including feelings of elation, relaxation and a sense of well-being.

Clear goals and unambiguous feedback

Although there appear to be a wealth of comparisons between the subjective experiences of individual and combined flow, two characteristics of individual flow are not mirrored in the current delineation of combined flow. These aspects of individual flow pertain to the idea of goal setting and achievement of goals, often referred to in the literature by the labels ‘clear goals’, and ‘unambiguous feedback’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

In accordance with the findings of Sawyer (2006) on collaboration and improvisation, in the current study it emerged that groups of musicians engaging in combined flow rarely have clearly defined goals due to the spontaneity and unpredictability of the group process. Similarly, as discussed in more detail in the analysis section, the current study suggests that feedback is not a facet of the experience of combined flow due to the preference amongst musicians to leave the experience unvoiced, and rather to silently share in the resultant intrinsic rewards. Therefore, it appears that, due to its unique and inter subjective nature, the phenomenon of combined flow is not conducive to these two characteristics of individual flow.

Collectively however, the above discussion supports classifying the experiences of individual and combined flow in a musical jam session under the common heading of flow experiences. Of the nine core characteristics of the experience of individual flow, seven have emerged in the current study as core characteristics of the experience of combined flow in a musical jam session. In addition, the two remaining characteristics appear to be absent due to the unique and inter subjective nature of musical jam sessions, rather than due to an absence of the phenomenon of flow in general. These findings are therefore in accordance with recent research by Wrigley and Emmerson (2011) who found that the flow model appropriately characterizes the experience of live music performance.

Therefore the current research suggests that the subjective or first person experience of being part of a group jam meets the criteria for individual flow. However, the current analysis also suggests that the subjective experience of a musical jam session appears conducive to the development of empathy between group members.

Combined flow and empathy development

Literature has often disagreed regarding the appropriate psychological definition of empathy (Reynolds & Scott, 2001). However, the majority of current literature is in agreement that shared emotions represent a key component of the empathic process (Johansson, 2008). The fifth major theme discussed during the analysis, ‘Sharing highs and lows’, captures the idea that the emotions associated with a group jam are shared. In particular, musicians in the current study described a dissipation of antipathy and an increase in empathy towards group members immediately following a group jam. It is likely therefore that a primary characteristic of the experience of combined flow, as distinct from that of individual flow, is the development of a sense of empathy between group members.

Activities that promote both intrinsic motivation and the development of empathy have clear practical applications in educational settings (Witson & Consoli, 2009). The current research has demonstrated that empathy development may become experientially autotelic, or intrinsically motivating, when initiated by the shared experience of combined flow in a musical jam session. Educational settings that seek to investigate or encourage the development of social skills, collaborative musical skills (e.g., Blom, 2012), or openness to learning, could harness this idea within their curriculums.

Knowledge relating to combined flow in musical jam sessions could also prove useful within music therapy settings. Current research has highlighted the use of technology within music therapy sessions (Burland & Magee, 2012). Perhaps combined flow could similarly be harnessed as a therapeutic tool to promote multiple positive outcomes. Currently, the use of flow principles in therapeutic settings rejects the classical focus on conflict in favour of a reorientation towards building on interests and strengths and enabling the individual to reduce dysphoric, or melancholic experience as a by-product of this growth (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). The current research suggests that in addition to the positive outcomes of individual flow, the phenomenon of combined flow could be harnessed within a variety of settings to introduce concepts such as the development of empathy and social awareness in an intrinsically rewarding manner.

In summary, this pilot study brings to light a number of salient and potentially widely applicable findings. Firstly, it demonstrates that the experience of combined flow in a musical jam session is comparable to the experience of individual flow in terms of seven out of nine key characteristics. This finding supports the idea of classifying the experiences of individual and combined flow in a musical jam session under the common heading of flow experiences. It also provides preliminary evidence that the positive outcomes of combined flow are likely to reflect those of individual flow. Further, the current findings indicate that the development of empathy may be an advantageous by-product of the phenomenon of combined flow, suggesting that combined flow experiences may be greater than the sum of their parts, offering positive outcomes above and beyond those associated with the experience of individual flow.

These findings have potentially important practical applications in terms of developing effective teams and cultivating positive and productive group work in organizational, educational, and therapeutic settings. Future research should build upon the current findings through further investigation of the dimensions and practical applications of combined flow.

Footnotes

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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