Easy listening? An analysis of infidelity in top pop,hip-hop,and country song lyrics over 25 years

Abstract

Although it has been established that sexual content is common in popular music, the extent to which this content references cheating behaviors is unclear. Given the prevalence of infidelity among Americans, it is important to examine how infidelity is portrayed in media targeted to young adult listeners. To explore these portrayals, we conducted a content analysis of the 1,500 most popular pop, hip-hop, and country songs in the United States over a 25-year period examining the frequency and nature of infidelity in music. Findings revealed that infidelity was discussed in approximately 15% of popular music, and was most frequently discussed in hip-hop songs. Both negative and positive consequences to infidelity were depicted, and were most often accompanied by a nonchalant emotional tone. Gender portrayals of song characters were consistent with previous research. Implications for young listeners in the context of social relationships are discussed.

Keywords

communication content analysis infidelity quantitative social cognitive theory

Music is a universal pastime. Approximately 93% of Americans listen to music (Nielsen, 2015), and young Americans listen to music for an average of 2 to 4 hours each day (Edison Research, 2014; Recording Industry Association of America [RIAA], 2016). In addition to providing entertainment, music has been shown to contribute to identity development during emerging adulthood (ter Bogt & Soitos, 2007). For some, music is an important source of information about social and gender roles, and is used to initiate social interaction with their peers (Christiansen & Roberts, 1998; Hallam, 2010).

In light of the important role that music plays in people’s sense of self, it becomes important to examine how music might influence listeners’ beliefs about social relationships. Infidelity is one aspect of relationships that has, to date, not been closely examined in music. This is surprising given the prevalence of infidelity in romantic relationships. Infidelity has been cited as one of the most common causes of divorce (Hawkins, Willoughby, & Doherty, 2012). Despite a general disapproval of infidelity among Americans, with 90% indicating that it is immoral (Gallup, 2013), nationally representative data show that between 1991 and 2006 rates of infidelity increased across all age groups. Further, infidelity is associated with feelings of distress and depressive symptoms among victims (Allen, Atkins, Baucom, & Glass, 2005) and feelings of guilt and anxiety among perpetrators (Lawson, 1988).

In a quantitative content analysis, the current project explores the depiction of infidelity in the most popular music over the last 25 years. We analyze the frequency of infidelity in popular music and draw attention to the way that infidelity is framed over time. We also identify the various consequences of infidelity for both the cheater and the victim, the gendered portrayals of cheating behaviors, and portrayals of infidelity by genre.

Sexual content in music

Popular music is rife with sexual content. More than one-third of popular music contains references to sexual intercourse (Primack, Gold, Schwartz, & Dalton, 2008). An analysis of sexual content across various types of media found that sexual themes are more prevalent in popular music lyrics than in television, movies, or magazines (Pardun, L’Engle, & Brown, 2005). References to sex and sexual activities are becoming increasingly prevalent and direct (Hall, West, & Hill, 2012; Strasburger, 1995).

Analyses of sexual themes in music have often been relatively abstract. For example, Pardun and colleagues (2005) examined the overall presence of romantic relationships and sexual references and their connection to teens’ sexual activity. Martino and colleagues (2006) examined how exposure to degrading lyrics were linked to precocious initiation of sexual intercourse. Although references to cheating would have been included in both analyses, the extent to which these sexual references depict cheating behaviors is unknown.

RQ1a: How frequently does popular music discuss infidelity?

Infidelity over time

Although our primary interest is the pattern of representations of infidelity in music across a broad period of time, it is also possible that such representations have shifted in their frequency or nature. Past researchers have identified shifts in popular music in response to social and economic conditions (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009), and the late 1990s and early 2000s have seen popular television content grow more frequently and explicitly sexual (Kunkel, Eyal, Finnerty, Biely, & Donnerstein, 2005). Thus, we pose the following research question:

RQ1b: Does the frequency with which popular music discusses infidelity change over time?

Infidelity by music genre

Evidence suggests that the nature and prevalence of sexual themes in music may vary across genres. For example, pop lyrics have been shown to allude to sexual themes and discuss relationships as committed and romantic. Conversely, rap and hip-hop lyrics make more explicit sexual references and often include misogynistic material (Hobbs & Gallup, 2011; Madanikia & Bartholomew, 2014). Cross-genre content analyses of music videos have found that country music, compared to hip-hop, rap, and R&B, showed lower degrees of sexuality and sexual objectification (Aubrey & Frisby, 2011). Further research has found that references to sex are most prevalent in rap and rap metal lyrics (Martino et al., 2006), and that rap and hip-hop listening is positively related to self-reported promiscuity (North & Hargreaves, 2007). Thus, we predict that hip-hop songs will contain more references to infidelity compared to other genres.

H1: Hip-hop songs will discuss infidelity more frequently than pop and country songs.

Consequences of infidelity

Given the importance of music, it is no surprise that music can have an influence on listeners. Applying social cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura, 1994) can explain this influence. SCT asserts that behaviors are often learned by watching others (Bandura, 2002). Audience members are more likely to emulate behaviors that are rewarded. Rewards can be social (e.g., praise, acceptance) or emotional (e.g., happiness, pride). In contrast, the presence of negative reinforcement such as pain, shame, or rejection decreases the likelihood of imitation.

Certain contextual features of the narrative are likely to make models particularly influential (Bandura, 2002). For example, audience members who perceive characters to be similar to themselves pay more attention to those characters’ behaviors. Characters perceived to be attractive, either physically or socially, are also particularly influential. Pop stars are likely to be perceived by many audience members as particularly attractive, as they are recipients of tremendous amounts of attention and admiration and are often depicted as bedecked with the trappings of material success. In westernized youth cultures, music celebrities are often idolized (Raviv et al., 1996). Adolescents are able to relate to them, identify with the stories in their music (Frith, 1983), and admire their celebrity status. They are often a source of fashion trends, health and fitness fads, and behavioral norms (Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992). Because of this, musical celebrities’ outlook on the world can be interpreted by young adult fans as truth, and their behaviors are likely to be imitated (Raviv et al., 1996).

Researchers have found that sexual media content is influential. For example, exposure to sexual themes on television has been linked to sexual self-efficacy (Martino et al., 2005) and expectations regarding sexual behavior within romantic relationships (Aubrey, Harrison, Kramer, & Yellin, 2003). These effects have also emerged in studies focusing on music and song lyrics. A cross-sectional study linked adolescents’ attention to sexual music and precocious sexually activity (Pardun et al., 2005). In addition, longitudinal surveys have shown that adolescents who listened to sexually degrading music lyrics were more likely to subsequently initiate sexual intercourse (e.g., Martino et al., 2006).

Adolescents’ perceptions about peers’ sexual behaviors have been shown to predict their own sexual behaviors (Santelli et al., 2004). Research has demonstrated that the media functions as a “super peer” to young consumers learning about sexuality (Brown, Halpern, & L’Engle, 2005). Infidelity, when framed in such a way that the consequences are positive or nonexistent, may be learned as a normal part of the relationship cycle. Anticipating learning requires an awareness of the consequences of infidelity in popular music lyrics.

RQ2: How frequently does popular music portray the emotional, physical, social, and relational consequences to infidelity?

Gendered portrayals of infidelity in music

The current study also examines the role of gender in music narratives featuring infidelity. Music and music videos often depict men and women in stereotypical gender roles (Arnett, 2002; Aubrey & Frisby, 2011). Men, for example, are portrayed as aggressive and dominant, and as prioritizing sexual pleasure (Arnett, 2002). Women are portrayed as sexual objects, praised for their physical appearance (Aubrey & Frisby, 2011), but often passive and dependent on others (Hansen & Hansen, 2000). Given these patterns of gender portrayals in popular music in general, examination of the role of gender in relational contexts in music is warranted. As men are traditionally depicted as more assertive about their sexual desires, we expect that in song narratives featuring infidelity, men will play the part of the cheater or the rival partner (the “other man”) more often than women. In contrast, we expect that women will play the part of the victim of infidelity more often than men.

H2a: Men will be depicted as the cheater and rival partner more frequently than women.

H2b: Women will be depicted as the victim of infidelity more frequently than men.

Emotional tone

Song lyrics have the ability to evoke an emotional response from listeners (Stratton & Zalanowski, 1994). While the melody and tempo of a song can be especially powerful in arousing emotion, lyrics have been shown to bolster the emotional effect of a song’s melody (Batcho, 2007). When participants were exposed to an upbeat music style paired with sad lyrics, they reported increased depression and decreased positive affect, suggesting that lyrics may be more influential in affecting mood (Stratton & Zalanowski, 1994). Taken together, these findings show that song lyrics send a persuasive and emotional message.

A song’s emotional tone may influence listeners’ attitudes towards behaviors described in the song’s lyrics. By pairing descriptions of infidelity with content that elicits positive or negative emotions, through repeated listening, the song may condition the listener to associate those positive or negative emotions with thoughts related to infidelity. Such affective conditioning is a common practice for advertisers (Alpert & Alpert, 1989; Gorn, 1982).

The present study examines the emotional tone(s) that accompany song narratives discussing infidelity. The emotional tone of a song can guide our understanding about how infidelity is framed in the narrative, and indicates how the singer and other characters in the story experience and feel about infidelity. For young listeners who identify with their favorite musical artists and who attend to the way in which they shape the narrative about infidelity, the emotional tone may serve as an important tool for listeners’ meaning making in the context of cheating behaviors.

RQ3: What are the emotional tones that underscore the discussion of infidelity in popular music?

Method

Sample

The current study examined the most popular songs in the United States for the 25-year period spanning 1991 to 2015. The 20 top songs listed on the Billboard Year-End Charts (www.billboard.com) from each of the pop, hip-hop, and country music charts were included in the sample, for a total of 60 songs from each year. The total sample consisted of 1,500 unique, full-length songs.

Coding

Three undergraduate coders, two female and one male, analyzed the sample based on a coding scheme established by the authors. After extensive training, inter-coder reliability was established with 15% (n = 225) of the sample. Krippendorff’s alpha for each category, along with category frequencies, are listed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Frequency of consequences and emotional tone in songs with infidelity.

Item (alpha)	n	% of songs with infidelity
Romantic infidelity (0.81)	60	27.15
Sexual infidelity (0.75)	185	82.71
Emotional consequences
Guilt/embarrassment/regret (0.70)	64	28.96
Disappointment/sadness (0.83)	90	40.72
Self-esteem (0.81)	13	5.88
Pride (0.74)	62	28.05
Physical consequences
Damage to belongings (no var.)	3	1.36
Aggression toward rival (0.79)	14	6.33
Aggression toward the cheater (1.00)	8	3.62
Unwanted pregnancy (no var.)	2	0.90
STIs (no var.)	0	0
Physical satisfaction (0.82)	80	36.2
Social consequences
Humiliation (1.00)	11	4.98
Rejection (0.76)	9	4.07
Praise (0.79)	15	6.79
Relational consequences
Conflict (1.00)	9	4.08
Termination (0.88)	55	24.89
Forgiveness (1.00)	1	0.45
Revenge (1.00)	5	2.26
Tolerance (0.84)	51	23.08
Emotional tone
Celebratory (0.76)	65	29.41
Angry (0.93)	36	16.29
Accusatory (0.94)	39	17.64
Remorseful (0.89)	35	15.84
Cautionary (0.80)	31	14.03
Nonchalant (0.91)	114	51.58
Sad (0.87)	78	35.29

Emotional, physical, and social consequences to infidelity were based on Aubrey’s (2004) examination of consequences of sexual activity on television and are described below.

Emotional consequences

Emotional consequences could be experienced by the singer or any other individual described in the lyrics. Negative emotional consequences included guilt/embarrassment/regret, for example “I’m kicking myself for being the one foolish enough” (“Do You Believe Me Now” by Jimmy Wayne) and disappointment/sadness. Positive emotional consequences included an increase in self-esteem and pride in the enhancement of one’s reputation.

Physical consequences

Negative physical consequences included damaged possessions, physical aggression toward the rival or the cheater, unintentional pregnancy, and the contraction of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Positive physical consequences were represented by physical satisfaction, for example “Girl, you need someone/someone like me to satisfy your needs” (“Bump’N’Grind” by R. Kelly).

Social consequences

Negative social consequences included humiliation, rejection, and being socially isolated by others. Positive social consequences were represented by praise from others, for example “You’re telling all your girls I done tore it up/So don’t be mad that they all want me” (“Another Round” by Fat Joe).

Relational consequences

Relational consequences were based on Roscoe and colleagues’ (1988) study on possible consequences of infidelity. These included verbal conflict, relationship termination, discussion of the problem or an attempt to find out why the infidelity occurred, forgiveness, and revenge in the form of infidelity. Coders also identified instances of tolerance of infidelity, a consequence that emerged during initial training sessions. We operationalized tolerance as being distinct from forgiveness in that a character who tolerates a partner’s infidelity laments the situation but is unable either to forgive or to end the relationship, for example, “I wish this would be over now/But I know I still need you here” (“I’m Not the Only One” by Sam Smith).

Emotional tone

Coders identified the overall emotional tone of the song lyrics. Categories were listed as independent; one song could embody more than one emotional tone. These emotional tones included celebratory, wherein the singer glorifies infidelity and shows a disregard for potential consequences, for example “Forget about your boyfriend and meet me in the hotel room” (“Hotel Room” by Pitbull); angry; remorseful, for example “I should’ve done you better/’cause you don’t want a liar” (“One Last Time”” by Ariana Grande); accusatory, where a character in the song suggests infidelity by another character, for example “Whose bed have your boots been under?” (“Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?” by Shania Twain); cautionary, where the narrative serves as a warning for a character or listeners of the song; nonchalant; and sad.

Results

Frequency of romance, sex, and infidelity in popular music (RQ1a)

In order to provide context for the frequency of infidelity depictions, we also coded for depictions of romance and sex. Of the 1,500 most popular songs from 1991 to 2015, 68.60% (n = 1,029) discussed romantic themes, and 48.40% (n = 726) discussed sexual themes. Infidelity was either mentioned or discussed as the theme of the song in 14.80% (n = 222) of the sample. Most infidelity was sexual (i.e., physical; 82.71% of songs with infidelity, n = 185); emotional infidelity (i.e., romantic but not necessarily physical) was less common (27.15% of songs with infidelity, n = 60).

Frequency of infidelity in popular music over time (RQ1b)

The year with the highest number of songs about infidelity was 2004, with 16 songs; followed by 2003, with 15 songs; and 2005 and 2015, with 14 songs (Figure 1). The linear trend line suggests an increase in the number of songs containing references to infidelity over the 25-year period; however, a regression analysis revealed that this increase was not significant, R² = .086, b = .145, SE = .099, p = .155. The number of songs depicting positive consequences to infidelity increased significantly, R² = .409, b = .179, SE = .045, p = .001. Conversely, the number of songs depicting negative consequences to infidelity has not changed, R² = .032, b = .073, SE = .084, p = .395.

Figure 1.

Frequency of songs with infidelity 1991–2015.

Songs with infidelity by genre (H1)

Infidelity was not represented equally across genres. In support of our first hypothesis, infidelity was discussed most often in hip-hop songs (n = 124, 24.80% of all sampled hip-hop songs), followed by pop (n = 75, 15.0% of all sampled pop songs), then country (n = 24, 4.80% of all sampled country songs). Two-dimensional chi-squared analyses were conducted to determine whether the distribution of songs that contain references to infidelity across the three genres was not equal. The relationship between the genre and songs that discuss infidelity was statistically significant, χ²(2) = 81.751, p < .001. A z-test comparing column proportions indicated that hip-hop contained significantly more songs about infidelity than pop and country, and that pop contained significantly more songs about infidelity than country.

Consequences of infidelity (RQ2)

Songs that depicted negative consequences and songs that depicted positive consequences occurred with approximately equal frequency in the sample. Of the songs that depicted infidelity, 42.99% included any positive consequences (for example, increase in self-esteem, praise, physical satisfaction; n = 95), and 55.66% included negative consequences (for example, sadness, unwanted pregnancy, damage to property; n = 123). Relational consequences were not included in these totals because it is difficult to objectively determine whether terminating the relationship following infidelity, for example, is perceived as positive or negative by listeners.

Emotional consequences

Disappointment/sadness was the most frequently occurring emotional consequence, and consequence overall, to infidelity (n = 90, 40.72%), for example, “I ask myself over again/What am I doing wrong?” (“So Gone” by Monica). Guilt/embarrassment/regret (n = 64, 28.96%) and pride in the enhancement of one’s reputation (n = 62, 28.05%) were also common. Less common was an increase in self-esteem (n = 13, 5.88%).

Physical consequences

Physical satisfaction was the most frequently occurring physical consequence, and most frequently occurring of all positive consequences (n = 80, 36.20%), for example, “Chills up that spine/That ass is mine” (“F*** You Tonight” by Notorious B.I.G.). Other physical consequences were less common: song characters rarely experienced aggression toward the rival (n = 14, 6.33%) or the cheater (n = 8, 3.62%), damage to belongings (n = 3, 1.36%), or unintentional pregnancy (n = 2, 0.90%). STIs were not represented in the sample.

Social consequences

Though social consequences appeared rarely in the sample, praise was the most cited social consequence (n = 15, 6.79%), followed by humiliation (n = 11, 4.98%), and rejection (n = 9, 4.07%).

Relational consequences

Although the most commonly occurring relational consequence was relationship termination (n = 55, 24.89%), tolerance of the infidelity was also quite common (n = 51, 23.08%). Song characters rarely discussed the problem or investigated the infidelity’s cause (n = 18, 8.14%), engaged in relational conflict (n = 9, 4.08%), sought revenge through reciprocal cheating (n = 5, 2.26%), or forgave the cheating partner (n = 1, 0.45%).

Two-dimensional chi-squared analyses were conducted to determine whether the various consequences of infidelity were equally distributed across genres. Compared to pop and country songs, hip-hop songs were more likely to depict an increase in self-esteem, χ²(2) = 7.259, p = .027, pride, χ²(2) = 18.707, p < .001, physical satisfaction, χ²(2) = 15.554, p < .001, and praise, χ²(1) = 6.158, p = .046. Country songs were more likely to depict relationship termination compared to hip-hop and pop songs, χ²(2) = 13.754, p = .001. No other consequences significantly differed by genre, ps > .05.

Songs with infidelity and gender (H2)

Men more frequently sang about infidelity (n = 151, 68.50%) compared to women (n = 71, 31.50%). However, the frequency with which men or women sang about infidelity did not significantly differ by genre, χ²(2) = 4.931, p = .085. Perhaps more importantly, we considered the way that each gender was portrayed in the sample. To do this, coders identified the gender of salient characters in each song narrative featuring infidelity. Gender was only coded when it was explicit. For example, in “Unfaithful” by Rihanna (“Because I’m gone again/And to him I just can’t be true”), coders identified a female cheater and a male victim. However, in Adele’s “Rolling in the Deep” (“The scars of your love remind me of us”), only the female singer was assigned the role of the victim, as the cheater’s gender is unspecified.

We conducted chi-squared tests to examine the distribution of the gender (male vs. female character) and role (cheater vs. rival vs. victim of infidelity) of each character described in the song narratives. Male characters (n = 37) played the role of the cheater more often than female characters (n = 12). The distribution of cheating characters by gender was statistically significant, χ²(1) = 12.00, p < .001. Male characters were also more often the rival partner (n = 77) than female characters (n = 21), χ²(1) = 32.00, p < .001. Female characters were the victim of cheating (n = 44) more often than male characters (n = 41), but the relationship between the gender of the characters portrayed and the gender of the victim was not statistically significant, χ²(1) = .11, p = .74. These findings partially support our second set of hypotheses that males are more likely to be depicted as the cheater and rival partner.

Emotional tone (RQ3)

Over half of the songs about infidelity expressed a nonchalant attitude towards infidelity (n = 114, 51.58%), for example, “I can’t seem to keep my damn hands out the cookie jar/It is what it is” (emphasis added; “The Cookie Jar” by Gym Class Heroes featuring The-Dream). This was followed by songs that were generally sad (n = 78, 35.29%); celebratory (n = 65, 29.41%); accusatory (n = 39, 17.64%); angry (n = 36, 16.29%); remorseful (n = 35, 15.84%); and cautionary (n = 31, 14.03%).

Chi-squared analyses were employed to determine the co-occurrence of emotional tones. Songs that celebrated infidelity were also likely to be nonchalant about infidelity, χ²(1) = 68.39, p < .001, for example, “Where the true players at? While I give your girl the eye, player please” (“Mo Money, Mo Problems” by Notorious B.I.G. featuring P. Diddy). Songs that were remorseful were also likely to be sad, χ²(1) = 62.53, p < .001, for example, “He revved it up/She waved goodbye/Love’s gone to hell and so have I” (“Brokenheartsville” by Joe Nichols). An accusatory tone significantly co-occurred with an angry tone, χ²(1) = 30.50, p < .001, for example, “Right now he’s probably up behind her with a pool stick/Showing her how to shoot a combo/And he don’t know …” (“Before He Cheats” by Carrie Underwood).

Discussion

In a content analysis examining the frequency and nature of infidelity in popular music from 1991 to 2015, we considered the presence of romantic and sexual cheating behaviors. Infidelity was discussed in approximately 15% of the most popular songs over a 25-year period. Although many people listen to music as a secondary activity, for example, while driving or doing homework, this amount equates to approximately one in seven of the songs most often played on the radio. These references were largely sexual in nature rather than romantic/relational, and research has shown that repeated exposure to sexual themes can lead to the development of sexual attitudes and beliefs (Brown & L’Engle, 2009).

Consistent with our expectations, infidelity was discussed more frequently in hip-hop songs compared to pop and country songs. Nearly one quarter of hip-hop songs included in the sample contained some reference to cheating. This may have problematic implications when effects are considered. Of audiences for major musical genres, hip-hop listeners tend to be the youngest (RBR+TVBR, 2012); when young people are developing sexual attitudes and values, the genre of music many prefer is also the one characterized by the most representations of sexual infidelity.

We also found that the popular songs included in the sample did not paint a consistently valenced picture of infidelity; positive and negative consequences were relatively equally represented. Although negative emotional consequences such as disappointment or regret were quite common, physical satisfaction appeared in more than one-third of songs containing references to infidelity. In addition, the most common relational consequences to infidelity were termination and tolerance, which reflect two very different responses to infidelity. This mix of responses may have implications for the way that young adult listeners interpret and learn from messages about infidelity. When taken together, the overarching narrative of infidelity in music may be that cheating on a partner will weigh on one’s conscience, but that these feelings are accompanied and perhaps mitigated by sexual satisfaction. Further, if one’s partner is aware of his or her cheating behaviors, relationship continuance is as likely as relationship termination. However, it is important to consider that individual factors influence the effects of exposure to media on young adults’ emotional responses to and enjoyment of media (see Oliver, 2002); this reflects an important limitation of the current study. The goal of this research was to determine how and how often infidelity appears in popular music. Research examining the influence of such depictions on listeners’ attitudes toward infidelity is still required.

Gender differences in representations of infidelity echoed other media representations of gender and sex (Hust, Brown, & L’Engle, 2008): Cheaters and rival partners were more often male. Although singers are not always the songwriters, audience members are likely to identify with artists of the same sex, and can learn which behaviors are normative among certain groups. These findings point to a general pattern of the hyper-masculine, hyper-sexual male that fits within the greater context of gender stereotyping in the media. The absolute frequency with which men appear as the cheater compared to women appearing as the cheater may influence listeners’ perceptions of the typical “cheater”. Frequent exposure to certain phenomena in the media can alter beliefs about the prevalence of those phenomena in reality (e.g., Nabi & Sullivan, 2001). For example, heavier exposure to sexual TV content is associated with the belief that sexual relationships are largely recreational (Ward, 2002), and perceptions of normative sexual behaviors (Aubrey et al., 2003). Applied to music and infidelity, listening to more popular music may result in greater expectations of male sexual infidelity.

Perhaps the most striking finding is that the most common emotional tone used to discuss infidelity is nonchalance. Cheating is often not portrayed as an emotionally impactful event. This flies in the face of research documenting that infidelity can be a trigger for major depressive episodes (Cano & O’Leary, 2000). Emotional tone is also likely to shape songs’ influence. First, with regard to learning from modeled behaviors, the absence of consequences is believed to function, frequently, the same as the presence of positive consequences. A nonchalant emotional tone may serve, then, in practical terms as an endorsement of infidelity.

This study has limitations. First, the sample used in the current study is limited to the 60 most popular songs on a year-by-year basis. The Billboard Year-End Charts are created based on a calculation of yearlong sales figures, airplay information, and streaming information from Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems (Pietroluongo, 2012). While this encapsulates the highest amount of exposure among Americans by accounting for their music selection preferences, it does exclude many other songs with extensive audiences. In addition, the sample was limited by the selection of three genres: pop, hip-hop, and country. Though these genres have been the most popular in the United States over the past three decades, other less popular genres, such as blues or alternative, may represent infidelity differently.

Due to the content analytical nature of the study, our description of music content does not account for listeners’ selective attention or retention processes during exposure. Research has shown that learning from a media source is strengthened at higher levels of attention (Chaffee & Choe, 1980). A key component in the process of interpreting song messages may be the degree to which audience members are paying attention to song lyrics, and retaining key information from those lyrics. However, these findings do provide important information about what types of messages exist and, because of our sample of top music, what messages are the most easily accessible to media consumers.

Lastly, other than the characteristics of each “character” in the infidelity narrative (e.g., character sex, age, etc.), we did not code each character’s individual experience of emotional consequences to infidelity. Instead, we coded for the presence or absence of consequences in each song containing a reference to infidelity. That said, in a narrative about infidelity, some emotional consequences are inherently experienced by the cheater, and not the victim. For example, it is more likely that the perpetrator of infidelity would feel pride or an increase in self-esteem as a result of having multiple partners compared to the victim of infidelity.

Overall, this study highlights the prevalence of infidelity in popular music in the United States. Infidelity in popular music is commonplace and results in a mixture of positive and negative outcomes, but is often not a big deal. Listeners’ attitudes and behavior about infidelity are likely affected by listening (Martino et al., 2006; Pardun et al., 2005). As music contributes to an understanding of social relationships, it may also shape young adults’ attitudes toward infidelity, their beliefs about traditional gender roles in cheating relationships, and their perceptions of appropriate responses to a cheating partner.

Footnotes

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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