Abstract
This much-awaited book is the accumulation of material reflecting the state of the art about musical development, going back to (and beyond) the previous landmark publication The Developmental Psychology Of Music (Hargreaves, 1986). The aim of the current book is to answer the broad question: “how and to what extent [do] people engage in music in different ways across the lifespan?” (p. 11). The book attempts to answer this question within 283 pages of text (not including references and subject index). The authors point out that, unlike the previous volume, this current one follows a topic-based approach focusing on specific areas of musical behavior. The text presents an “Introduction” (Chapter 1), thereafter seven chapters each concentrating on a specific theme, and an “Afterword” (Chapter 9). Here is a snapshot overview: the “Introduction” presents an outline of the book and places it within a relevant context of the current scientific literature; Chapter 2 outlines 10 main theoretical approaches that can explain musical development; Chapter 3 focuses on music perception and cognition; Chapter 4 explores the social aspects of musical development; Chapter 5 underlines the environmental information of musical development (including motivation); Chapter 6 highlights identity, personality, and lifestyle as correlates of musical development; Chapter 7 expands on emotional responses to music; Chapter 8 delineates the impact of music (i.e., psychological functions) on humans throughout their lifespan; and the “Afterword” reflects on the current state of the empirical field of musical development as well as looking into the future (where developmental music psychology might go and how it might get there).
The book is well researched and documented. While the text is written for academics (both students and active researchers), because the language is reader-friendly, both teachers and parents can find the book to be a resource of information about musical development—which is not usually easy to tease out from articles appearing in the scientific journal literature.
One major critique of the book is its lack of tables which could have been employed to highlight and/or summarize some of the content; only three tables are presented in the 283-page book. While such an innovative document has reviewed over 1,100 empirical publications of the scientific literature (covering more than 80 years of investigation), the authors have certainly missed an opportunity to provide an appendix of tables that outline stages and milestones illustrating sequences of developing musical perception and cognitive-motor abilities. It certainly would have been a great advantage for teachers, students, and parents to relinquish “old-school” materials such as Greenberg’s (1979, pp. 19–39) Sequence of Development (found in a chapter titled “The young child’s growth and development”) for Hargreaves and Lamont’s more up-to-date research-based knowledge.
Chapter 2, to some extent, is the pallet on which the authors paint the background for the book The Psychology Of Musical Development. It offers an in-depth look at ten theoretical approaches to musical development. Initially, the authors put forth two Piagetian-like age-based models illustrating schema outlining stages/phases/modes of musical development (as developed by Swanwick and Tillman in 1986, and by Hargreaves and Galton in 1992). Then, they present two models of cognitive-learning highlighting the role of experience and training on musical understanding across periods of maturation (as developed by Gordon in 1977 and Serafine in 1988). Thereafter, two unique models of musical development are outlined: the Gardner-like symbol systems approach (as developed by Bamberger in 1982); and the zygonic theory approach to music or applied musicology (as developed by Ockelford in 2013). Subsequently, three socio-cultural approaches are delineated, including Vygotsky-like models (as developed by Adachi in 1994, Abrahams and Abrahams in 2016, and Welch and Ockelford in 2016), ecological transactional approaches (such as developed by Clarke in 2005), bioecological systems approach to music development (as developed by Lamont in 1998), social facets and implications of musical identity (as developed by Hargreaves et al in 2012), transactional family/community approaches (as developed by McPherson et al in 2012), and Bandura-like social-cognitive approaches focusing on the role of imitation in musical development (as developed by Wiggins in 2016). Finally, two neuroscientific methods are outlined.
Chapter 3 begins with the origins of music perception, namely, foetal (as developed by Hepper in the 1990s) and infant responses (as developed by Trehub in the 1990s). Then, the chapter focuses on the vast amount of research methods, and findings targeting the development of perceptual and cognitive skills among babies, infants, and toddlers through to age 12 related to absolute/relative pitch, consonance/dissonance sounds and frequency ratios, pitch relations to scales and tonality, as well as the impact of early musical training on all of the above-mentioned. The chapter then moves on to aspects of rhythm beginning with infant studies; the text deals with tempo and metric timing, as well as with synchronicity. Timbre is presented as the basic ability to differentiate between instruments. The chapter then reflects on evidence from explicitly individual isolated features of music versus real music, which always presents combinations of features that continually change over time. For example, the chapter discusses melody (pitch and contour, transpositions, rhythmic patterns, expectancy); the results clearly support the notion that “pitch discrimination is genetically or biologically determined while implicit perception of both tonal and metric structures is mediated by environmental factors” (p. 88). In addition, Chapter 3 describes memory for music structures and the visual representation of music (e.g., notation), musical style, music engagement, and creativity (by using improvisation [attunement and mirroring] and composition [from early babbling and vocalizations, playsongs and rhythmic games, through schoolyard chants, singing collaborations among friendship groups, to music-making and composition in school] as proxies).
Chapter 4 focuses on sociological approaches to music development “which provide a way of thinking about social structures underpinning the world of music, which in turn has implications for how children and young people find their place in the world” (p. 103). The approaches include those outlines by Adorno, Bourdieu, Frith, DeNora, and Engeström. Eventually the chapter takes a lifespan approach beginning with infancy and early childhood, through middle and later childhood and adolescence, to adulthood and later life.
Chapter 5 highlights environmental influences on music ability and its development. The authors delineate issues such as measurement of musicality (ability, aptitude, achievement, and attitude), as well as individual differences (age, gender, musical training and experience, personality, and social class). The chapter targets both normative musical development and specialist expert musical development. Namely, the authors attempt to answer the question: “is it the case that ‘everyone is musical’ or are some people more naturally ‘gifted’ than others?” (p. 140). That is, what is the place of practice and training, as well as the role of motivation, in promoting musical achievement. Then, the chapter looks at the function of the family, school, and peers in musical development. The chapter continues to add a full description of two landmark studies: The Keele–Exeter (UK) study of the biological determinants of musical excellence among young Western classical musicians; and the Sydney (Australia) longitudinal study on the skills involved in successful learning and performance of music. Finally, the chapter looks at music education (especially applied in England) and the renewed evaluation of curriculum and pedagogy. In this connection, the text highlights conceptual distinctions between specialist versus general music at school, institutional versus community music-making, and teacher versus learner of music. Moreover, the chapter examines the way in which social, cultural, and ideological influences which shape the nature of music education affects the musical development of children and adults. To this end, the chapter emphasizes contexts (national local versus global practices), aims, objectives, and methods, as well as formal versus informal learning (having to do with autonomy, ownership, learning style, and content).
Chapter 6 highlights identity, personality, and lifestyle. Namely, the chapter looks at the relationship between musical identity and people’s personality and their lifestyle choices. Most specifically, the authors consider the “nature of musical identities, i.e., the ways in which we perceive ourselves in relation to our musical achievements, aspirations, and abilities” (p. 187). Two sides are presented: the first presents the aspects of musical identity defined within existing categories (composer, performer, critic, consumer, etc.); the second refers to how the “the domain of music is used as a reference point in other aspects of our own individual differences” (p. 187; self-perception, gender identity, sexual orientation, etc.).
Chapter 7 delineates the underpinning of affect and emotion in music. Beginning with Meyer’s 1956 theories of musical expectation, the authors move on to Juslin’s 2013 BRECVEMA framework (an acronym for
Chapter 8 highlights the role of music in wellbeing and health; the authors look at “why people are motivated to engage in music listening and what effects it can have on mood and emotion, [as well as] how to treat health conditions that arise primarily in performing musicians and the crippling performance anxiety that affect many, … and the ways in which music can be used to help treat other health conditions” (p. 245). From the onset, the authors submit to the fact that these topics have been exclusively “researched with adult aged samples, but much of it has developmental antecedents or is shaped by early experiences” (p. 245). While such a justification may not be merited, especially as no confirmation is provided to strengthen this claim, certainly the reason for this deficiency is the almost total lack of empirical findings on the use of music with normal everyday young children in their effort to maintain wellbeing (or decrease performance anxiety). Nonetheless, one cannot deny that as a strategy such a rationale has been successfully employed in the past. Even the authors themselves recall the Mozart Effect —a demonstration of increased spatial-temporal reason after listening to 10 minutes of Mozart’s Sonata For Two Pianos in D Major K. 448 performed by Murray Perahia— which was “disseminated and diffused … in the absence of any evidence for beneficial effects on cognition in children” (p. 255). Accordingly, on p. 264, Hargreaves and Lamont state: “there has been very little research on the physical effects of music making in children, but a few researchers have begun to consider how the problems that affect adults might also affect children”; and further: “most of the research of the psychological benefits of music making has focused on adulthood and later life (and the same also applies to social benefits …)” (p. 268). If these statements are true, then one must wonder why readers should adopt any conclusions from these studies as if relevant to, and hence having the bearing on, the musical development of young children.
However, in this reviewer’s opinion, Chapter 8 also reflects an unfortunate popular trend that has developed and strengthened over the past decade, whereby two very distinct fields—Music Psychology and Music Therapy—have entangled themselves for common benefit, resulting in a significant increase in research investigations, monetary gains from grant agencies funding projects, and an inflation of publications in both traditional outlets (as well as among the ongoing slew of newly established open access e-journals). In addition, the great interest in the effects of music has caused the number of Music Psychology conferences to escalate, while the needs of organizing committees to defray the costs has increased a demand for paying registrants from any music-related field of study including peripheral topics; in most cases, several sessions on Music Therapy and Music & Health are scheduled. Subsequently, Music Psychology journals and books have become an outlet for manuscripts and chapters on Music Therapy (albeit Music Therapy literature has more or less maintained its own identity).
For the most part, this trend has been fueled by music psychologists’ interest and involvement in areas such as “wellbeing,” “music-neuroscience,” and “performance anxiety” (among the main issues delineated in Chapter 8). On the one hand these research areas have benefited much from the input of experienced music scientists. On the other hand, their contribution and association has (at least in some minds) sanctioned them virtual licensure to develop interventions, provide commentary and suggestions on the field, and, based on some research reports, enact as participants in the therapeutic process—without as much as having undergone advanced clinical learning, fieldwork, internship, and certification. In most cases, music psychologists do not even show the most fundamental insight of differentiating between mediations that are therapeutic experiences versus those that are bona fide valid and reliable therapy interventions. In the current chapter, Hargreaves and Lamont relate to a host of materials that further reinforce this problematic conduct. For example: While the musicians in Preti and Welch’s (2011) study were not formally trained in music therapy, the type and activity they were undertaking is relatively close to the principles of music therapy: they brought their own instruments, sang, and involved children and their caregivers in musical activities involving percussion instruments, and received training prior to the programme. (p 254)
Simply reporting studies in this manner is no more than a supportive gesture of such oversights. For example, while the authors do indeed refer to a therapeutic experience as implemented by those with only the most basic of musical skills, they misrepresent the session as if it is therapy, and by doing so condone clinical involvement by those who have no clinical training. Here it should be pointed out that when a music therapist intervenes with children and their caregivers (daycare workers, or parents), they have planned and considered much more beyond bringing their own instruments and singing. In another example, Hargreaves and Lamont cite a study by Duffy, Somody, and Eckstein (2009) who use music as metaphor for helping couples identify and describe formulative events in their relationship. Accordingly, a seven-step process for creating a couple’s musical chronology was developed, whereby couples could link their relational history to specific music exemplars, and were encouraged to rekindle feelings that once brought them together. Hargreaves and Lamont report that “music selections are then shared, put together in playlists, and experienced as part of therapy” (p. 258). Here it must be pointed out that employing music within a counselling setting might seem to laymen as comparable to Music Therapy, but yet, whereas the former does not go beyond the meaning and associations as found in the words of the title and textual lyrics, the latter actually employs the music (the actual sounds themselves) and the fundamental musical characteristics as found in the songs, as indicative material that advances diagnostic impression and shadows therapeutic outcomes. In a somewhat irresponsible manner, Hargreaves and Lamont offer recommendations for Duffy et al.’s exploratory approach. They state: Evidence is yet to be gathered on the efficacy of these techniques but they seem promising … (p. 258)
This reviewer would like to clarify that endorsements of this type have long ago been surpassed by more serious referrals to treatment approaches that have been demonstrated by effect sizes. The practice of mental health treatment interventions, including Music Therapy, have long ago triumphed to paramedical heights whereby employment of methods, techniques, approaches, and models are solely founded on the principles of evidence-based therapy. Finally, in another example, Hargreaves and Lamont discuss the personalized tailored use of music for older people with dementia, stating that some suggestions are raised in the literature as to whether or not music “may be effective in both evoking emotions and reducing anxiety” (p. 259). The words “may be effective” is the key issue here. Hargreaves and Lamont should have commented on methodological problems, poor rigor, or lack of standardization among the empirical studies they referred to in the passage. However, when looking at the lack of general findings, they convey a rather unacceptable message: Much more work needs to be done in this area to support these indications, as large-scale randomized controlled trials do not always confirm these effects (p. 259).
It should be pointed out here that a message such as this one is again misrepresentative. Clinical research lays the groundwork for progress in Music Therapy, and is an indispensable prerequisite for evidence-based treatment. Randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for ascertaining the efficacy of a music-based treatment. Only RCTs can demonstrate the superiority of a novel approach over existing standard treatments. Today, RCTs are used to form the basis for government-regulated health authorities to approve third-party payment. High-quality RCTs offer a low risk of systematic error (bias), and provide the highest level of evidence. Hence, and unfortunately for all those who stand behind research endeavors that appear to be favorable, the only way a “promising” intervention procedure, method, technique, approach, or model can be acknowledged as valid and reliable (i.e., acceptable to the wider community of allied health professionals) is to demonstrate an adequate effect size from a randomized clinical trial outcome study.
We would all acknowledge that professionals with nursing skills are not medical doctors, nor can they perform the same procedures that medical doctors who have indeed been certified to undertake such practices. Similarly, we would presume that those sitting in judgement over finalists in The Arthur Rubinstein International Piano Master Competition are expert performing master pianists. Moreover, we expect that those teaching music in primary schools have been certified as educators—well beyond an ability to choose a song and reproduce it in the classroom (either live or from a recording). Just as there is a need to separate between research-based demonstrations exploring the effects of music and music-making on wellbeing and health versus clinically based interventions, there is a need to differentiate between Music Psychology and Music Therapy. Certainly, each has a contribution to make to the development and psychology of humankind, but each is uniquely different in pre-requisite skills, formal training and certification, professional mandate, licensure, and life-long career experience. In the opinion of this reviewer, music psychologists should refrain from commentaries about Music Therapy without having the appropriate clinical background for a deep understanding of the milieu. Similarly, music therapists should abstain from offering lectures about music and brain, perception and cognition of music, and musical development without advanced expertise subsequent to a preoccupation with empirical science and the scientific literature—especially as knowledge from popular literary sources is not a sufficient basis of information (even if such materials have received coveted accolades such as a place on the New York Times Best Sellers list).
Chapter 8 clearly points out that, while the underlying explanations for cognitive improvement are still not fully understood, the effects of music-making (and musical play) on the mind and cognition, include: language, speech, memory, auditory processes, general IQ, executive functions, spatial and spatial-temporal abilities, mathematics, reading and school achievement, and social development. The chapter does much to forward the auditory scaffolding hypothesis as an explanation for such benefits: “The temporal and sequential nature of auditory input scaffolds advancements in general cognitive abilities that depend on these, potentially mediated by the neural connections between temporal and frontal lobes” (p. 268). Yet, Hargreaves and Lamont also contend that “there are ‘far’ transfer affects from music training to domains that require different cognitive skills such as executive function” (p 268). Accordingly, they also acknowledge the need for more complex explanations—that coordinate between perceptual and executive functions and the particular combination of auditory, visual, motor, and memory-related processes … (p. 268), namely: priming effects, transfer effects, and generalized mood and arousal effects.
Chapter 9—“Afterward”—summarizes the broad theoretical overview of the fields that relate to musical development across the lifespan as presented in the book. The chapter offers thoughts on five key themes that the authors view as generating future research: (1) the socialization of musical development; (2) the place of technology on musical development; (3) the adoption of a lifespan approach to musical development; (4) the importance of self-regulated music learning and the concept of musical identity; and (5) applied music psychology employing observations of real-life musical interactions.
Personal impression
Taking a broad look at the book, this reviewer’s personal impression is that The Psychology Of Musical Development is an excellent thought-provoking read, and a resource that should be found on the shelf of every music psychologist, music educator, applied musicologist, music therapist, and performing musician.