Absolute pitch: Myths,evidence and relevance to music education and performance

Abstract

The assumed extreme rarity of absolute pitch (AP), sometimes known as “perfect pitch”, is not supported by empirical evidence. Instead, studies indicate a prevalence of at least 4% for music students, making AP of potential importance to everyday music education. Considerable scientific curiosity about AP exists, though rarely have research findings been practically applied to music education. This review looks at the evidence of the origins of AP and of the distinct neurological, language and cognitive features of possessors, and considers the relevance of these to music students. The absence of systematically gathered data from those with AP about their experiences is discussed, and implications for the educational needs of this group considered.

Keywords

Absolute pitch music education

This review explores the empirical evidence and the theory relating to AP, which is the ability to identify musical tones in isolation (Baharloo, Service, Risch, Gitschier & Freimer, 2000). Curiosity about this field was provoked for the first author in response to musical pupils seen over years in practice as an educational psychologist, and to conversations with musicologists, music teachers and students. AP was associated with a tenacious set of beliefs, including its rarity (Bachem, 1955; Profita & Bidder, 1988) and links to autistic spectrum disorders (ASD: Sacks, 1995). However, these consistently reported assumptions were often not underpinned by equally robust evidence. An overarching aim of this review is to bring to musical educators, for whom this information has a professional significance, key evidence-based knowledge about AP currently available, including its prevalence.

Literature searches were performed on British Education Index, ERIC, JSTOR, PsycINFO, Science Direct, University of London Research Library Services, Web of Science, Wiley Interscience Journals and OVID. Key words used in combination were: absolute pitch; autism; cognitive style; children; and education. Papers were included on the basis of date (primarily since 2000) and publication in English. Earlier work was included when pivotal to current understanding. Information sources were also identified through a “paper trail” approach to secondary references and citations.

Definition and prevalence

AP is defined as the ability to identify, instantaneously and accurately, music tones presented in isolation (Baharloo et al., 2000). It is typically distinguished from relative pitch (RP), where a reference note is essential to identify the tone (Miyazaki & Ogawa, 2006). Possessors report that acquiring AP was incidental and effortless (Bermudez & Zatorre, 2009b).

The alternative term “perfect pitch” is misleading, as AP does not assume 100% identification accuracy. However, there is diversity of opinion about what level is required. For example, Takeuchi and Hulse (1993) cite a series of studies with mean accuracy levels spanning from 58% to 99%, while Leite, Mota-Rolim and Queiroz (2016) argue for a threshold of 20% accuracy on the basis of error probability. With no fixed method to test AP, the required accuracy rate is additionally influenced by differences in measurement tools and criteria (Bermudez & Zatorre, 2009a). Such variation impedes comparison of study results and a progression of knowledge and is discussed in further detail later in this review.

Different methods and criteria have been used in research to identify AP possessors. Sergeant and Vraka (2014, p. 218) observe that “although there is general agreement that the recognized manifestation of AP is pitch-naming behaviour, there is almost universal disagreement as to the criteria to be applied to identification of the ability”. For example, in response to the evidenced age-related decline in pitch naming accuracy in those with AP (Athos et al., 2007), studies vary in how they accommodate this. Some fully or partially credit responses within a semitone, regardless of participant age, whilst others score exact answers only (Baharloo, Johnston, Service, Gitschier & Freimer, 1998; Bermudez & Zatorre, 2009a; Schlemmer, 2009). Allowing semitone errors can alter the probability of a credited response from 1:12 to 1:4 by chance alone. This may go some way to explaining the variation in score distribution patterns between studies (Athos et al., 2007; Schlemmer, 2009). There have also been inconsistencies in the methodology for confirming AP. Across the studies identified, the number of tones with which participants have been presented varied from 24 to over 100; response times have ranged from a few seconds to unsupervised and open-ended conditions; and confirmation of AP has sometimes been based on self-report (Athos et al., 2007; Bermudez & Zatorre, 2009a; Deutsch, Henthorn, Marvin & Xu, 2006; Gregerson, Kowalsky, Kohn & Marvin, 1999; Schlemmer, 2009). These wide variations make it difficult to compare results or develop broader perspectives from the accumulated findings.

The figure most frequently quoted for the estimated prevalence of AP in the general population is less than 1:10,000 (Bachem, 1955). This figure has been repeated for over six decades, is cited internationally and in a variety of influential and contemporary research articles and is now widely available through online reference sites (e.g., Deutsch & Dooley, 2013; Takeuchi & Hulse, 1993; Wikipedia, 2019). However, the data on which that estimate is based is not available in the referenced article, where the author states that “only an extremely small percentage of population (less than one-hundredth of 1%) possesses absolute pitch” (Bachem, 1955, p. 1180). A potential source for this figure can be found in an earlier paper by the same author (Bachem, 1940). In it he reports his study based on 103 adult participants with AP, anticipates at least 20 more possessors in the city (population around 4,000,000) and calculates the prevalence on that basis. The more modest figure of 1:1,500 reported by Profita and Bidder (1988) is also unsubstantiated by published data. While challenges to the bases of these estimates are emerging (e.g., Leite et al., 2016; Miyazaki, Makomaska & Rakowski, 2012), the critiques have yet to make an appropriate impact on “assumed knowledge” (Hellyer, 2015; Kupferstein & Rancer, 2016).

Greater evidenced consensus is being achieved on the prevalence of AP in musician subgroups, with cross-cultural studies enriching the consideration of the potential for population differences based on factors including genetic, ethnic and/or language backgrounds. For example, amongst music school students in Brazil, Leite et al. (2016) found that 4% achieved 85% accuracy on a test of tone identification, with 18% achieving accuracy significantly above the level of chance. Comparing Japanese and Polish music students and applying an 80% accuracy threshold, Miyazaki et al. (2012) identified a 49% prevalence in the former group and 12% in the latter. Deutsch et al. (2006) recruited music conservatoire students from populations in China and the USA. Using an 85% accuracy threshold, the rate of AP decreased with the higher age of commencement of musical training (4–5, 6–7 or 8–9 years). AP rates ranged from approximately 65% to 45% for the Chinese group and 15% to 0% for the American one, and the differences between the groups were significant at each age level. Semitone errors were not credited in these three studies, and response times were set below 6 seconds to reduce the risk of RP-based calculations. Such consistencies between studies allow for comparisons not possible elsewhere.

Other populations, identified by neurological conditions such as ASD, are assumed to have elevated prevalence of AP, though robust research-based estimates are yet to be produced. Rimland and Fein (1988), whose data is based on 5400 young people with an ASD, are commonly cited as providing the evidence of the greater trend of AP in those with that condition (e.g., Sacks, 1995). Within this study, a subgroup of 10% with some form of exceptional skill was identified. Parental assessments from less than a quarter of that subgroup indicated exceptional musical skills in around half of those children. However, these parents were not randomly selected, nor were “musical skills” defined. Therefore, this data can only reasonably be interpreted as indicating that at least 1% of the ASD population may exhibit some form of musical talent. It cannot be implied, as some authors have (e.g., Sacks, 1995), that the families who answered the questionnaire were representative of the whole of the subgroup, that the musical talent identified always involved AP, and therefore that 5% of the ASD population has AP. More contemporary reports of AP in those with ASD are often evidenced by single case studies (e.g., Heaton, Davis & Happé, 2008; Mottron, Peretz, Belleville & Rouleau, 1999).

In summary, adherence to estimates from the last century of the rarity of AP in the general population or the high frequency in the ASD population cannot be justified. Inconsistencies in assessment methodology in more recent studies have produced wide variation in the figures for the former, and these are highly vulnerable to distortion of the criteria which define AP. However, a body of comparable cross-cultural data is emerging from studies which examine AP prevalence in musical communities. These figures indicate that the incidence of AP amongst musicians is far greater than previously acknowledged, potentially ranging from 4% to 65% or higher. Therefore, for those involved in music education, an understanding of AP functioning is likely to be relevant in their day-to-day work.

Many of the studies of AP are adult-based, and the implications for prevalence among children and young adults cannot be assumed. Importantly, data has yet to emerge on the stability of AP frequency between generations. Typically, studies do not acknowledge the possibility that some participants might have had the underlying potential for AP but lacked the appropriate musical experience to activate it. The question of a critical period for triggering AP is the first consideration in the next section of this review, which looks at the origins of this ability.

Theories of the origins of AP

Developmental

Across studies there is considerable agreement that, for AP to develop, focused musical tuition has to start by between 5 and 7 years of age (e.g., Baharloo et al., 2000; Chin, 2003). In their Japanese study, Miyazaki and Ogawa (2006) compared children of different ages at a music school on their note naming ability. The authors identified an increase in accuracy across ages from the start of tuition at 4 years of age, until a plateau of 80% was reached at 7 years of age. Their findings add weight to the identification of the significance of this age. Potential exceptions to the ceiling are individuals with neurological conditions such as Williams Syndrome or an ASD, where a cut-off period appears absent or delayed (Chin, 2003; Happé & Vital, 2009). However, the majority of children who experience early tuition do not develop AP, so that is not the sole deciding factor (Baharloo et al., 1998).

Chin (2003) draws on theories of development, such as Piaget’s (1950) preoperational/concrete operations stages, to explain why the 5- to 7-year range might present a cut-off point for developing AP in the general population. This Piagetian phase is seen as a significant time during which the child moves from perceiving the world in isolated events or units to understanding those events or units in relative positions to others. Chin proposes that musical notes learned before this stage are registered as isolated experiences, and therefore AP has the opportunity to develop, whereas after this phase the notes are experienced in relation to others, and RP is learned.

Language, culture and genetics

When considering what lies behind AP development, two or more factors are typically referred to: one being early musical tuition, with diversity of opinion about the other factor(s). Deutsch (2002) adds normal processes of language development as an underlying feature. Drawing on the theory that speech and music share common brain mechanisms and evolutionary underpinnings, she suggests that AP potential is universally present at birth but fades after the first year. Deutsch argues that, for an AP possessor, this potential sometimes endures and overlaps with the beginning of musical tuition, enabling the association between specific pitches and labels within a critical developmental stage.

The study of Gregersen et al. (1999) is often reported as evidence of a genetic factor for AP. Based on analysis of a large-scale survey of US music students, the risks of inaccurate self-report cannot be disregarded. Importantly, while the authors found that AP was significantly more prevalent in Asian than non-Asian students, they acknowledge the potential for environmental rather than, or in addition to, genetic influences on the data.

Tonal languages, such as Chinese and Vietnamese, are those in which word meanings are fundamentally changed by the spoken pitch (Deutsch, 2002). Importantly, it should be understood that the term “pitch” in this context refers to relative variation and not specific notes, and that different tonal languages vary in the number of relative pitches used. For example, Mandarin has four pitch patterns that can determine a word’s meaning (McWhorter, 2015). Other languages, such as Japanese, are pitch accented, with the defining tones only occurring potentially in one or two syllables within a word. Languages such as English and Spanish are non-tonal, and pitch at a word level does not affect its meaning. The cross-ethnicity differences in AP prevalence identified by some studies (e.g., Deutsch et al., 2006) have often been attributed to the use of tonal languages, where the child is sensitised to pitch variation from a critically young age (Deutsch, Henthorn & Dolson, 2004). However, speakers of tonal languages do not inevitably develop AP, so that cannot be the only factor in play (Schellenberg & Trehub, 2008).

While Miyazaki et al. (2012) found much higher rates of AP amongst Japanese than Polish music students, Japanese is not a tonal language (Deutsch, Li & Shen, 2013). Considering other possible factors, the authors identified that, on average, the Japanese students started their training earlier than Polish ones: 5 years of age, compared to 7.8 years. They suggest that environmental factors probably interact with genetic predispositions to facilitate AP development. The relative significance of language and ethnicity were explored by Deutsch, Dooley, Henthorn and Head (2009) who found that, amongst young US musicians with an East Asian heritage, it was the degree of competency in their tonal home language which was decisive, with greater fluency being associated with higher levels of AP. Students not fluent in their tonal language were no more likely to develop AP than those from a non-tonal language home, though total competency was not necessary for there to be an effect. Referring to these findings in a letter to the editor, Henthorn and Deutsch (2007) suggest that early exposure to the increased pitch sensitivity of Japanese may be a factor in predisposing those speakers to AP. Therefore, it could be this rather than a genetic effect that contributed to the greater AP presence in the Japanese group in the Miyazaki et al. (2012) study. Cultural variation in early musical experiences rather than ethnic differences were again highlighted as influencing factors by Leite et al. (2016) in their Brazilian-based study.

To date, while there is convincing evidence that, for some, the (relative) pitch demands of their language can facilitate the development of AP, cultural differences in music education are also likely to be impacting, and the interaction between these factors needs to be understood. The current evidence for a genetic factor is not convincing. An examination of family traits, controlled for cultural effects, could offer information about genetic factors.

Neurology

New technologies, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, have stimulated neurological research. In that context, AP possessors have created fascination and merited exploration in their own right, particularly in relation to brain plasticity and regional specialisation. Brain plasticity describes the organ’s ability to adapt over time, potentially structurally, in response to the demands placed on it, including instrumental playing (Schlaug, 2001).

Much of the neurological consideration of AP has focused on a region of the auditory cortex called the planum temporal (PT), which is linked to auditory processing (Keenan, Thangaraj, Halpern & Schlaug, 2001; Ohnishi et al., 2001). The left-hand PT is associated with processing rapidly changing, fine-grained auditory information, and the right-hand PT with processing slowly changing acoustic cues. Fine-grained information in speech would include the sound elements of words, while in music it could be individual notes. The slowly changing information in speech would encompass the prosody or expression in what is said while, in music, it would be associated with melody. However, the hemispheres also work together to integrate information (Meyer, Elmer & Jäncke, 2012). Hemispheric preference is also affected by experience. For example, Ohnishi et al. (2001) found that PT hemisphere responses varied between adults listening to music, with greater left-sided activity for those with musical training than those without, and particularly for those with AP. This suggests that the musical group is attending to the elements of the sound more than is the untrained one. Elsewhere it has been shown that those with AP process speech sounds differently to musicians without that facility and to non-musicians (Oechslin, Meyer & Jäncke, 2010). So, it is not simply a matter of the nature of the input that influences hemispheric preference here: it is also affected by individual differences in experiences and, perhaps, underlying predispositions (Keenan et al., 2001; Meyer et al., 2012).

Findings suggest that the usual leftward asymmetry of the PT was further exaggerated in AP possessors and that this was primarily due to a right-hand decrease (Keenan et al., 2001; Schlaug, 2001). Keenan et al. suggest that it may be a pre-natal difference in the asymmetry which provides AP potential in some individuals, with musical experience increasing the difference. An alternative hypothesis is that the difference results simply from musical experience.

Cognitive characteristics and ASDs

Bermudez and Zatorre (2009b) and Chin (2003) are amongst those who suggest that AP reflects an individual’s general preference for a detailed processing style. According to this argument, although all individuals might vary the target of their attention depending on the situation, those with AP are more likely than the wider population to engage with the detail of information generally rather than with the bigger picture. For example, when looking at a pointillist painting, they might be drawn to the specific dots, and be less aware of the overall images. Adult-based studies have addressed this question in relation to musicians generally and those with AP in particular, and the results sometimes support the hypothesis (e.g., Brown et al., 2003; Costa-Giomi, Gilmour, Siddell & LeFebvre, 2001), though not consistently so (Schlemmer, 2009). Elsewhere, Happé and Vital (2009) argue that detailed focus is significant to talent in various manifestations, including intellectual talent. Since general ability is rarely rigorously controlled within these studies, there is a risk that it is this, rather than AP specifically, which is creating the detailed processing effect.

ASDs are developmental disorders which are identified on the basis of a diagnostic triad relating to social skills, communication and limited behaviours/interests. Major theories of the cognitive character of individuals with ASD also often identify an exceptional capacity to note fine detail (Baron-Cohen, Ashwin, Ashwin, Tavassoli & Chakrabati, 2009; Happé & Vital, 2009). Savant skills, “islands of genius” in those with serious intellectual disabilities (Treffert, 2009), sometimes occur within ASDs, with musical ability (not necessarily AP) being one manifestation of this (Treffert, 2009). While there might not be substantial evidence that the rate of AP in autism is elevated, the ability to retain and identify single notes has been shown to be stronger in musically naive children with autism than those without (Heaton, 2003). The author attributes this to an enhanced capacity to process and retain a context-independent stimulus, a description in keeping with detailed processing. However, this cannot be assumed to indicate that those with AP will therefore fall within that diagnosis. Based on responses to the Autism-Spectrum Quotient questionnaire, Dohn, Garza-Villarreal, Heaton and Vuust (2012) found that their participants with AP did not differ from those without that ability on measures of social and communication skills, which are key areas of weakness in those with an ASD. Importantly, their overall Autism-Spectrum Quotient scores were “well below clinical thresholds for autism”.

Another cognitive factor identified as potentially important is memory. From research with adults, Deutsch and Dooley (2013) argue that greater short-term auditory memory capacity is a significant factor in AP development. The authors acknowledge that it could result from, rather than cause, AP, but do not explore the possibility of a general intelligence factor.

Knowledge to date: An overview

AP is the ability, acquired without specific effort, to identify musical notes in isolation (Bermudez & Zatorre, 2009b; Baharloo et al., 2000). The great variation in study methodology when exploring this ability has contributed to variations in research findings.

The prevalence of AP in the general population is unknown. Data gathered from musical populations internationally suggest rates in those subgroups ranging from 4% to 65%, with variation impacted by factors including childhood language. Prevalence should not be confused with potential: studies identify those with AP, and rarely discuss the theoretical group for whom this capacity has not been triggered by necessary early experiences.

The theory and evidence reviewed here suggest that, for AP to develop in those without specific conditions such as autism, musical tuition needs to be in place prior to the age of 8 years. Development of AP may be linked to the normal processes of language development. Competency in a tonal language increases the likelihood of AP, with greater fluency associated with higher rates of AP accuracy. A possible increase in tonal sensitisation enabled by pitched languages may explain the elevated rates of AP amongst some. Evidence of genetic factors in the development of AP is not yet forthcoming, though cultural influences resulting from musical education traditions are indicated. However, AP is not inevitable, even with optimum early experiences.

AP is linked to an increased tendency for detailed processing of music. Musically trained individuals, and particularly those with AP, show distinct neurological characteristics in sound processing. AP has been associated with an increased leftward asymmetry in part of the auditory cortex linked to fine-grained, rapid processing. While both ASD and AP are associated with detailed processing, the conclusion cannot, and should not, be made that AP results from an ASD. Instead, it has been proposed that detailed processing is a factor in talent generally and may also be a feature of ASD. Short-term auditory memory has been found to be stronger in those with AP, though a causal link cannot be assumed.

Much of the research into AP has been carried out with adult participants. While differences have been identified between those who possess AP and those who do not, we do not yet have evidence to determine whether these may cause AP, be caused by it, or result from interactional effects with musical education. The reasons why some individuals develop AP and others do not, despite the appropriate musical tuition, remain unknown.

The relevance to music education

Why might AP be of importance?

To date, incorrect beliefs about the extreme rarity of AP have obscured its potential importance within musical education. It can facilitate some aspects of musical functioning but also creates difficulties or differences in others. Consider what we now know to be a realistic low estimate of 4% prevalence amongst musicians alongside other variations in the population of Britain: 4.5% are colour blind; 4–8% experience dyslexia; and 10% are left handed (www.colourblindawareness.org; McManus, 2009; The Rose Report, 2009). Regardless of whether these differences are viewed positively, negatively or neutrally, it would not be acceptable if their resultant needs were unaddressed.

To illustrate why support might be needed by AP possessors, take the example of choral work. While AP can assist sight-singing by increasing pitch accuracy and facilitating note-sound association, it can complicate simultaneous transposition. Individual possessors may eventually find ways to manage this, for example, by imagining a different key signature. However, it would be more appropriate if educators could suggest adaptive techniques within normal musical education. This would be particularly important to younger pupils, perhaps unaware they even have AP, who are managing different experiences from their peers. Compare this situation to any student’s with working memory weakness: teachers would be alert to signs of functional difficulties and would teach compensatory strategies. The fact that AP can be an asset as well as an impediment does not make it less appropriate for support.

AP is also important to education because of the advantages it offers, such as freeing cognitive resources. However, there are ethical implications if educators deny or facilitate the opportunity to develop something about which there is such limited knowledge. So, before we attempt to manipulate its likelihood, for example, by informing parents of the 7-year-old threshold or targeting note-based instruction for all under-8s, we need to be clearer about the potential positives and negatives of possessing this trait.

Outside the music domain of education, since studies identify differences in neurology and language processing for individuals with AP, one might question whether it could impact on functioning more generally. For example, those with musical training are more sensitive to the prosody in speech (Schön, Magne & Besson, 2004), so perhaps AP possessors, drawn to detailed processing of sound, might be less likely to recognise the overarching “melodies” of speech and the meanings they communicate. We do not know this to be so, but an awareness of the possibility could be important to students across the curriculum.

The recognition within education of the potential musical and general implications of AP is currently inadequate. Remedying this situation would enable educators to meet their responsibilities to two groups: those who have AP, and those who could develop it in the future. How things could and should progress in education for AP possessors must be determined by the evidence base available. This review has shown that, in recent decades, a bank of robust evidence has emerged which can form a starting point, but that those resources are currently limited. Therefore, the work of educators and musicologists is threefold: to use the knowledge we have; to identify the gaps in relevant knowledge; and to carry out research to close those gaps.

Using current knowledge

We are educated both informally (e.g., through documentaries, magazine articles and online) and formally (e.g., through schools, colleges and academic journals).

In informal settings the task is largely a question of communication: reversing the tendency to ignore AP or perpetuate inaccurate myths. Those with knowledge should challenge inaccuracies and be proactive in provoking interest and disseminating facts, both in everyday life and through the channels indicated above.

In formal settings both communication and application are required. The more educators know about AP, the more sensitive they can become to its presence and significance amongst their students. Communication would involve sharing information through specific instruction as well as everyday discussions. At the highest level, teacher training institutions, local authority music inspectors and teaching journals are among the channels into and through which evidence about AP should be distributed. At the student level, communication could be part of the curriculum and ordinary reference. Like every “difference”, the minority possessor should be supported to feel they are not an “oddity” but can discuss their needs and differences with confidence. Refutation of misinformation such as AP’s rarity and the association with ASD would be important. Despite such limited knowledge of AP available, educators should not feel deskilled or overwhelmed: a role of “curious scientist” relative to their students is a valuable one, facilitating exploration of experiences to enhance understanding.

Where application is concerned, there is an argument for a tactful but proactive approach in identifying students with AP. Cultural implications should be considered as there is an increased likelihood of AP amongst students with a tonal or pitched home language. Educators may not know their students’ language backgrounds or which languages could be relevant. Better understanding of AP functioning would mean possessors could be given guidance to manage their advantages and disadvantages. This will be particularly important for younger students, who are largely left negotiating their experiences alone. This support might need to extend into non-musical functioning, such as language processing, so music departments have a responsibility to educate other colleagues about this. Additionally, possessors within and between schools and between ages might be encouraged to share, document and review coping mechanisms. To help encourage respect for those with AP, possessors should not be reduced to the role of human tuning forks for choirs and orchestras.

Identifying gaps in relevant knowledge

The annexation of music within the school curriculum is frequently discussed (e.g., The Guardian, 2018), meaning that routes for channelling collated information about students’ experiences and receiving relevant research data are even less well defined than if it were a core academic subject or a sporting activity. Therefore, identifying appropriate recipients and routes for communication about gaps in knowledge would be an essential early step. Well-organised online discussion groups could offer systems for efficient and wide-reaching information gathering.

It would be expected that the identification within education of knowledge gaps would emerge as a consequence of increasing awareness and discussion of experiences. This could have implications for all students of music, as it stimulates analysis of the pedagogy of music education. Just as the concept “some people can’t do maths” is being challenged by an understanding of different learning needs, the idea that “some people aren’t musical” should stimulate a problem-solving attitude amongst educators and researchers.

Carrying out research

One overarching question about AP is, given the necessary musical education, what proportion of people might develop it? Some schools involve all pupils in instrumental tuition from an early stage. Examination of those pupils’ AP rates would provide a more meaningful estimate of potential in the general population, provided factors such as underlying ability and home languages were controlled for.

This review has identified considerable scientific curiosity about AP: rarely are findings linked back to music education. Of the few observations about its impact on musicians, most are anecdotal or based on opinion. For example, Sergeant and Vraka (2014) suggest only three main advantages of AP – vocal sight-reading, composition and music dictation – but offer no supporting evidence, nor further exploration. Individual reports to the first author confirm that the benefit of AP can extend, for example, to identifying chords and deconstructing harmony: the automated nature of note identification frees the AP listener to develop other aspects of analysis. Indeed, Zatorre, Perry, Beckett, Westbury and Evans (1998) offer supporting evidence, suggesting AP possessors, unlike others, do not use working memory resources when judging musical intervals. This might be compared to fluent knowledge of number facts, and the advantage this affords for mathematical problem-solving.

Contribution of the musician’s view

As an AP possessor commented to the first author, if you have it, you do not know what it is like not to and vice versa. Indeed, we cannot assume that all possessors have similar experiences. To understand differences and help lead research there needs to be dialogue. Regrettably, consideration of AP is typically reduced to one question with two possible answers: is it an advantage, yes or no? Informal online discussion groups provide some information, though this is typically limited in depth and range of contributors (e.g., The Trumpet Blog; Chidester, 2017). There can also be misunderstanding about what AP is, confusing it with having a “good ear”. The opportunity for rich but rigorous exploration of individual differences within and between AP and non-AP communities needs to be seized so we might better manage its potentials.

Musicians, therefore, have an important role to play in furthering educators’ knowledge of AP and stimulating research. They do this directly by raising awareness of their experiential differences and compensatory strategies; and indirectly by informing researchers and opening the subject for general discussion.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Laurence Carden for his specialist musical knowledge and astute observations about tonal languages.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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