Higher music education students’ experiences and management of performance anxiety: A qualitative study

Abstract

This study was undertaken with the intent of exploring three overarching research questions concerning music performance anxiety (MPA). The first objective was to collect descriptive accounts of the everyday experiences of MPA in educational settings. The second objective was to investigate the adaptive coping strategies students utilized to manage their MPA, which were distilled from the data in light of the self-regulated learning framework. Finally, the perceived institutional support around MPA was investigated. A semi-structured interview approach was used as the main data collection method (n = 10). All students interviewed perceived themselves as experiencing MPA to some extent; however, the intensity of these experiences varied. The most common MPA coping strategies mentioned were increasing individual practice time, and mental skill practices. All students mentioned the importance of preparation, which was associated with self-confidence, leading to higher self-efficacy beliefs, which in return had a positive impact on their management of MPA. Teachers and peers were identified as integral to sustaining students’ well-being and MPA regulation efforts. A positive teacher attitude toward the management of MPA appeared to encourage students’ help-seeking efforts.

Keywords

music performance anxiety self-regulation coping strategies higher education institutional support

Performing music at a professional level requires refined and highly specialized skills. Achieving such mastery takes many hours of deliberate practice and training in both physical and psychological aspects of performance (Ericsson et al., 1993). Over the last few decades, researchers have become increasingly interested in studying various challenges associated with performing music. Within this field, much interest has emerged in understanding music performance anxiety (MPA). Several empirical reviews of the prevalence of MPA among professional (Kenny et al., 2014; Vaag et al., 2016) and student (Kenny, 2011; Steptoe & Fidler, 1987; Tamborrino, 2001) populations indicate that the phenomenon is widespread and problematic for a significant proportion of musicians.

Definitions of MPA differ among researchers; however, there seems to be consensus that performance anxiety in musicians is characterized by an anxious apprehension about performing, which may or may not be optimal for the performance itself (Kenny, 2011; Salmon, 1990). Salmon (1990) argues that MPA can manifest in three loosely related categories: physiological, behavioral, and cognitive (or mental). The physiological and behavioral components of MPA are associated with the over-arousal of the autonomic nervous system and they include increased heart rate, shortness of breath, and dry-mouth. The cognitive components are related to feelings of anxiety and negative associations about performing, such as fear of becoming anxious, experiencing memory slips, or being distracted (Kenny, 2011; Salmon, 1990; Williamon, 2004).

There is some evidence that post-secondary level music students report higher performance anxiety than professional musicians (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987; Tamborrino, 2001; Wesner et al., 1990). MPA researchers have found that music performers experience the highest levels of anxiety in evaluative situations, and fear of negative evaluation is identified as one of the main causes of the phenomenon (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Kenny, 2006; Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Wilson & Roland, 2002). A limited number of studies examining management of MPA have reported various coping strategies, such as increasing individual practice time, deep breathing, and positive self-talk (Kenny et al., 2014; Roland, 1994). To date, investigations have mostly been confined to quantitative inquiries. Although a considerable amount of research has been devoted to physiological aspects and remedies of the phenomenon (see reviews by Kenny, 2005; McGinnis & Milling, 2005), less attention has been paid to investigating students’ experiences and management of MPA in higher education institutions through qualitative inquiries. The current study aims to address this gap by employing a theory-informed, qualitative approach to explore the coping strategies student musicians utilize to manage their performance anxiety. A comprehensive understanding of the personal experiences and coping strategies of MPA through a qualitative lens is warranted to provide a well-rounded perspective on the well-being of music students in higher education.

Theoretical framework

Existing research suggests that self-regulated learning (SRL) is an essential component in increasing competency in musical performance skills (McPherson et al., 2018; Nielsen, 1999, 2001). In academic contexts, more specifically in reference to learning processes, SRL is typically viewed as an active constructive process where individuals set goals, monitor, organize, and control their cognition, motivation, and emotions to achieve desired explicit or implicit academic goals (Pintrich & Zusho, 2002; Zimmerman, 2000). Educational researchers have argued that self-regulation consists of the same basic executive functions and higher order processes, such as metacognition and effortful action, regardless of what is being targeted, be it emotions, learning, or motivation (Pekrun et al., 2002; Winne & Hadwin, 2010; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).

The cyclical processes of SRL (see Figure 1) are closely linked to a student’s underlying sense of self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 2010; Zimmerman, 2000). Self-efficacy refers to “people’s judgements of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Indeed both self-regulation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001) and self-efficacy (Bandura, 2010) researches have indicated that there is an apparent link between high-stress performance situations and affective reactions, such as anxiety. Moreover, such reactions are highly influenced by the presence or absence of particular regulating factors. In addition, a perceived inability to control negative thoughts and environmental stimuli has been directly linked to anxiety response (Bandura, 2010). These features of the SRL framework make it an ideal fit for studying MPA.

Figure 1.

Phases and Subprocesses of Self-Regulation.

Method

Participants

The sample for this study comprised 10 music students aged between 19 and 29 years. Participants were limited to students undertaking studies in the Western classical tradition, playing solo or orchestral instruments. All students were enrolled as performance majors at their institution. Four of them were male and six were female. The participants volunteered to take part in the study and were not selected on the basis of their background with MPA.

Procedure

The participants were recruited through multiple channels: departmental contacts (e.g., instrumental teachers’ listserv emails) and in-person recruitment. Printed flyers and social media were also used with the help of the student union. Data were collected through face-to-face, semi-structured interviews that lasted approximately 60 min. An interview-based research protocol was created (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015) with questions focusing on the three key themes of the inquiry (see Supplementary Materials): (1) MPA manifestations, (2) regulation strategies, and (3) perceived support from institution, including teachers and peers. The interviews were conducted in English.

Ethical approval

The Norwegian Centre for Research Data reviewed and approved this project. Informed consent was obtained, and students received a modest gift card for their participation.

Thematic analysis

The data were analyzed through thematic analysis (TA). TA is regarded as foundational to any qualitative inquiry and is defined as “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). The TA process followed six steps. The recorded interviews were transcribed, and the names were replaced by participant numbers. Identifying information (e.g., names of the instruments, instrumental teachers) was removed from the transcripts. The initial codes were then identified and gathered in chart form. A theory-informed approach was used to extract the general themes, followed by inductive reading of the data to identify sub-themes and variation in the material. The final thematic outline (see Table 1) was created through refinement of the themes compiled in the previous steps. Finally, the data were studied in light of the relevant literature and were presented in written form in response to the research questions (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Table 1.

Overarching Themes and Sub-Themes Emerging From the 10 Interviews.

Over-arching themes	Sub-themes
Manifestations of MPA	Anxiety on- and off-stage
Manifestations of MPA	Optimal arousal
Coping strategies	Forethought phase
	Preparation and task orientation
	Self-efficacy and other self-perceptions
	Performance phase
	Backstage rituals
	Performing on stage
	Self-reflection phase
	Emotions and self-perceptions
Perceived institutional support	The significance of student–teacher relationship
	Institutional support and MPA awareness
	Peer support and MPA

MPA: music performance anxiety.

Findings

All participants reported experiencing MPA to some extent. The intensity of these experiences, however, varied from one individual to another. The most common coping strategies mentioned were increasing individual practice time, and mental skill practices. Perceived support within the institution, in particular the role of the primary instrumental teacher, was also discussed. In the following paragraphs, findings relevant to each overarching theme are presented in detail with supporting descriptions.

Theme 1: Manifestations of MPA

The central experience of MPA for the current study appears to be closely related to affects (feelings, moods). When discussing these affective states students described being “unreasonably nervous,” “stressed,” and “worried.” These descriptions were further expanded into fear of negative evaluation, fear of losing the control of the performance, and questioning one’s self-worth. Physiological challenges experienced on stage were also mentioned. Some typical statements included the following:

Shaking, that is the most common. Sometimes dry-mouth, sweaty palms, and really dry [mouth]—all the moisture disappears from my mouth. (P8)

I usually get cold hands, increased heart rate. Sometimes I felt my feet were shaking on the pedals. I felt like people were seeing my feet. (P9)

Worrying about memory slips. Even when I play on stage, I talk to myself negatively—oh am I going to remember this? I am planning a disaster—and expecting the worse. (P10)

The notion of prolonged MPA emerged as another theme when participants mentioned experiencing various manifestations, both physiological and affective, for hours or even days before the actual performance:

I was so nervous even in the morning; I got up in the morning [and] it was already there. It wasn’t something that hit me later or anything. (P8)

I can’t sleep; it happens that I sometimes can’t sleep for 3 days. (P5)

The days approaching the concerts I get so nervous in my stomach. The day before for example, I often feel so prepared, but my stomach still reacts; I get upset stomach and diarrhoea. (P4)

Even beforehand I was being so negative in my mind. How I am so new to this . . . How is it possible that I would win this audition? And that negativity I was feeling, it was kind of internal, but it came out so much worse when I got to the audition. (P3)

Such descriptions are evidence that MPA is not always a sudden experience that happens on stage, in that, it can be experienced long before the performance takes place.

Optimal arousal was another recurring theme in the data. This sub-theme emerged as the experiences of positive forms of anxiety were recounted and described as being beneficial:

The best feeling is you start getting nervous, but you just do music and stop thinking about everything else and music comes from your inside and out. (P9)

I think it helps up to a certain level, but past that, it affects your performance negatively, and before that it also effects your performance negatively. Sometimes I am under stimulated . . . and need to somehow get nervous to be able to perform my best. Otherwise I might be daydreaming. (P2)

These descriptions suggest that some students are aware of and have experienced both adaptive and maladaptive forms of MPA. Although it was only mentioned by a few students, such arousal may facilitate an ideal performance while creating debilitating experiences in other performance situations.

Theme 2: Coping strategies

All participants in this study had developed strategies to manage their MPA. Having coping strategies that are tailored toward tackling specific MPA manifestations resulted in increased confidence that was accompanied by decreases in feelings of stress and anxiety.

Strategies used in the forethought phase

In the context of musical performance preparation, the forethought and planning phase in the SRL cycle involves thinking about upcoming performance events or auditions. All participants, without exception, mentioned increasing their practice time as the main strategy to manage their MPA. Often the practice goals students set were tailored to tackle the anxiety manifestation they experienced. For instance, six of the students interviewed discussed having specific strategies to manage potential memory slips. Some examples included the following:

I learn two lines [of music each day], so if it is something difficult, I might have to do the same part again for a few days in a row. [I] just work on it with different rhythms and techniques. (P2)

You need to know the score so well that you can write it down on a piece of sheet paper with all the details. I do that, then I know the music better so I can trust myself. That relieves a lot of tension. It is like implementing a photographic memory of the score in your head. (P10)

I go through the notes in my head and discover some spots that I can’t recall. Then I go back to the score and practise those passages, so I eliminate making mistakes in those parts. (P1)

These strategies and their continued use depended on the students’ beliefs about their effectiveness and also their perceived skills in implementing them (e.g., “I do that, then I know the music better so I can trust myself,” P10).

The forethought phase of self-regulation was found to be particularly important in coping with MPA. This appears to be a phase where self-efficacy beliefs develop out of the student’s perceived preparedness. For instance, students’ self-conviction in their ability to handle an upcoming event appears to more likely lead to feelings of hope and achievement:

I had really prepared, I really felt like I had something to offer with the music, the musicality, the expression, and I think that it went really smoothly. (P3)

When discussing their experiences of MPA, students often attributed past negative or positive performance experiences to their level of preparedness. The self-judgment of their capabilities to perform at a desired level appears to have a direct impact on their MPA, for instance, “My anxiety depends on how secure I feel about the concerts, how well I know the pieces I play” (P1) or “I notice that if I am very well prepared, I don’t necessarily get that nervous” (P10). These descriptions suggest that there is a link between lower levels of self-efficacy and higher levels of MPA and vice versa.

Furthermore, findings also suggest a link between self-efficacy beliefs and other self-perceptions such as self-worth. In the following examples, one can observe that the participants’ self-worth is shaped by their perceived competency in performance skills:

Basically, my self-worth for a while depended on—and it still does to a certain degree—how well I play. So, I feel like if you have a good day, you get lots of good feedback, then you are a good person. (P2)

Mostly it is panic, and negativity about me. The strangest thing is I judge myself as a person . . . How I am worthless as a person; it is like I shouldn’t even exist, that kind of very deep and dark place. (P5)

Overall, the forethought phase appears to be influential in shaping performance outcomes. As students unanimously put forward the notion of increased practice as the most effective strategy to manage MPA, the perceived importance of the forethought phase becomes self-evident. Taken together, these results provide us with some evidence that self-efficacy beliefs, shaped mainly during this phase, have a particular importance in regulating anxiety on stage. In addition, task-oriented preparation strategies (e.g., memorization) that are successfully acquired appear to result in increased self-efficacy and enable adaptive MPA coping.

Strategies used in the performance phase

In line with the SRL framework, the performance phase has two major components: self-control and self-observation. The students described having backstage strategies to regulate their heightened mental and physical states. This was often accomplished through deep breathing and maintaining a focused mental state. One student mentioned that a reminder to breathe can release pre-performance tension: “Sometimes you are so stressed that you forget about breathing, so I just remember to breathe” (P6). The following students described focusing on a specific sound or memory to calm down physically and mentally:

Before going in the audition room, just focus on one sound that you hear in the room . . . maybe it is buzzing from a lamp or something and do some deep breathing and try to find your centre before you go in. (P3)

I think about happy memories. When I walk on stage, I sometimes think of my summer house, happy memories from my childhood, my cat—then, in a way, I [disarm] my nervous system. (P7)

Furthermore, imagining the performance situation beforehand and going through mental rehearsals of the task multiple times during the forethought phase was mentioned by four of the participants. In the performance phase, particularly when backstage, they then used this mental representation of their performance to maintain their focus, thus keeping potential negative emotions at bay:

I try to really make a mental map–mental choreography–imagining how I want to sound. (P10)

. . . a map overview. Just in my head. Of course when you are practising a lot, I think over time it becomes more internalised. (P3)

This “map-overview” represented students’ personal ideas on what the music should convey to the listener, such as emotions, ideas, feelings. By focusing on these various pleasant aspects of the performance, students appeared to enable effective coping that led to better management of MPA on stage.

Strategies used in the self-reflection phase

In the self-reflection phase, students self-evaluate and make sense of the performance outcome. The reflections students engage in during this phase appear to be shaped by how well they have performed and by the nature of the feedback they have received from their peers, teachers, other relevant musicians, and family members who were at the performance. The most common MPA coping strategies students utilized following a performance were talking to family, friends and teachers; distraction (e.g., going out for a meal); and self-reflecting on life in a more general sense. One student mentioned the importance keeping things in perspective:

For me, many musicians who spend a lot of time in their studies could over-romanticise a bit how important this being a musician idea is. It is important to find perspective; I play music and I want to have a good time. . . . I try to build a nice life and have good relationships. So, when I play an audition and if it doesn’t go well, not much is at stake, it is just one aspect of my life. (P7)

The self-reflection phase also sets the stage for identification of the gaps in one’s preparation. These cues are then internalized to be carried forward into the forethought phase and translated into developing further strategies:

It is interesting because when you play an audition you come out and know exactly what you need to work on because you sink to the weakest points of your preparation. (P10)

The emotions the students experience after a performance appear to also influence their self-perceptions. For example, “That was the worst experience I had. I didn’t get to do anything that I planned, . . . I have heard these stories, and I didn’t think it could ever happen to me too (P8).” On the other hand, a positive performance experience appears to result in higher self-esteem and increased motivation:

I associate, in a sense, more nerves with more of a feeling of achievement after, because you conquer this big thing, and you feel this rush of happiness after. Yeah, I did it! Just pride of having done something you thought was scary. (P2)

Overall, the past performance experiences were reflected upon to develop new task strategies and to assess the effectiveness of the existing strategies that are to be carried forward. In addition, the self-reflection phase also appeared to be influential in the construction of students’ self-efficacy beliefs.

Theme 3: Perceived institutional support

The roles of the instrumental teacher and peer support were highly recurrent in discussions pertaining to coping within institutional settings. All students highlighted the ways in which the various aspects of their relationship with an instrumental teacher influenced their musical learning, particularly in developing technical skills and musical interpretation. All students interviewed brought up the importance of being understood at an emotional level by their teacher as well. In this regard however, there was divergence between students who shared experiences of MPA with their teachers and those who did not feel comfortable doing so. One student explained that being able to “talk about anything” with her teacher brought a sense of ease:

I talk a lot with my teacher—she is great, we talk about everything, she wants me to be open . . . I told her that I get tense . . . I can’t get everything out that I have in myself. Hopefully, people have teachers they can be open with as I am. That is the most important part; there are always lots of thoughts surrounding the profession. It is good to talk to someone. (P9)

As in the example above, a teacher willing to meet students at an emotional level was highly appreciated. Another student shared how hearing about her teacher’s experiences gave her sense of hope for moving forward:

One of my teachers experienced the same thing when he was my age, he was at a big concert and his bow started to shake and stuff, but [as he got older] it stopped, that gave me a bit of hope for the future I guess. (P2)

In these examples, it appears that the student’s motivation to tackle MPA is supported by the instrumental teacher. These various perceived positive interactions highlighted the role of the instrumental teacher as potentially facilitating adaptive MPA coping in educational settings.

Some others, however, mentioned that their teachers’ willingness to assist them was limited to developing technical and musical skills, and rarely about the emotional aspects of performing music. The following students perceived that their teachers did not have much to offer when it comes to management of performance anxiety:

My main teacher is not necessarily the best help in MPA. He is my best teacher in [instrumental] skills but not in chamber music or MPA for example. (P10)

I think he just knows how to play the instrument well and how to manage everything—that is it. He has mastered his instrument and I am not sure if he knows how to help me with my anxiety. (P4)

These varied experiences of support (or lack thereof) among the students reflected the complexity of the teacher–student dynamic. Those who perceived being not supported by their teachers on MPA-related issues identified a need for a more collaborative support structure around the issue in their educational environment. For example, the following three students described how they maybe would have reached out for help if the experiences of MPA were more normalized at her institution:

Maybe if I didn’t need to knock on the [referring to the in-house psychologist] door to ask for help . . . I think it should be a bit more normalised to get this help, I think more people struggle and not everyone is able to take charge of it—it takes courage to ask for help. (P10)

P: When I don’t have these struggles that you don’t see, visible ones, then you don’t get to take these classes [referring to support offered by the institution].

I: If I understand you correctly do you mean physical struggles get more attention and care than the mental ones?

P: Yes, I think they are ignored because you are the one who has to talk about them and that is hard. (P4)

I think there can be more information about MPA in general that is provided by the institution. Because we have this course in the first year, and they tell you how you can book sessions with the psychologists and so on but there is not much of that in later years and I think many people forget about it or don’t want to investigate what is offered to them. So maybe reminders would be good. And the psychologist can be more visible somehow. (P7)

Interestingly, there appears to be a link between how helpful students perceived their teachers to be in providing emotional support and their perception of the helpfulness of institutional offerings. For example, two of the descriptions presented above (P10 and P4) highlight the need for more institutional support while previously describing their teachers as not being the best help for MPA.

Students also mentioned sharing their negative performance experiences with a friend who can listen in an open, non-judgmental way:

After the competition I talked to my flatmate about what happened. He is good at being entertained by the concept of me being frustrated. We just went to eat some good food. The best thing for me is to get rid of the bad emotions that follow so I distract myself with something I really like. (P1)

He is like a mentor to me; he works at a professional orchestra. I kind of explained (to him) what went down and how I was feeling. We did talk a bit about attitude, and how it can influence someone. It made me realise a lot that your attitude when you are practising is so important to the entire process. (P3)

The quotations above suggest that students often have the need to communicate their experiences of MPA to a friend as a part of their self-reflection phase. In whichever way the support is used, be it spending time together, or identifying room for improvement in one’s mental attitude, peers appear to be an important component in a student’s support structure.

Discussion

This study sheds light on students’ experiences and management of MPA in educational settings. Results suggest that MPA is a common phenomenon; its components and intensity, however, are varied. The affective (e.g., uneasy feelings) and physiological (e.g., dry-mouth) manifestations were mentioned frequently. These findings align with existing literature that describes various aspects of performance anxiety (i.e., Kenny, 2011; Williamon, 2004). Furthermore, some students discussed the contribution of adaptive forms of anxiety to the outcome of their performance. These descriptions resulted in findings that align with existing research on “optimal arousal” in performance (i.e., Steptoe, 2001; Valentine, 2002; Williamon, 2004) addressing the benefits of a certain amount of arousal to performance outcomes. Importantly, only a few students, describing the experience of MPA, confined their remarks to what happened on stage. For most of them, the heightened emotional states were apparent for days or weeks prior to the performance. Therefore, the term “stage fright” when used as a synonym for MPA appears to be a misnomer for this particular sample, as the anxiety was experienced far in advance of the performance taking place. Thus, defining musical performance anxiety as a prolonged experience that is not limited to the stage is crucial to effectively implement support structures around the issue.

Participants in this study believed that they needed to develop coping strategies to manage their MPA. Their preparation in musical and technical matters was unanimously mentioned as the key strategy in gaining self-confidence, leading to higher self-efficacy beliefs. Most students described using coping strategies to reduce negative affective states or to regulate physiological changes, such as shaking of the bow hand. Their coping strategies were mostly directed toward enhancing cognitive aspects of learning and performing music which they acquired through extended deliberate practice, and with guidance from their primary instrumental teacher. However, they seemed to lack resources for regulating various emotions, particularly in the self-reflection phase. For example, following a negative performance experience, in addition to feeling somewhat embarrassed about a memory slip, a student described developing task-specific coping strategies tailored to memorize repertoire more effectively. It appeared, however, that despite increasing competency in memorizing repertoire through new adaptive strategies, the student continued to experience MPA, in the form of worry or anxiety about having a memory slip again at upcoming performances. These findings suggested that emotions following a performance play an important role in student musicians’ future achievements and that the management of these emotions may be crucial for future performances.

The role of self-efficacy beliefs was identified as one of the most important factors in management of MPA. When analyzed within an SRL framework, self-efficacy beliefs appeared to be shaped both during the forethought and self-reflection phases. In this regard, negative emotions, such as disappointment and hopelessness, in the self-reflection phase led to lower post-performance self-efficacy beliefs. On the other hand, emotions related to positive performance outcomes, such as pride and satisfaction, were positively related to higher levels of self-efficacy beliefs and other positive self-perceptions to be carried forward into future performances. Thus, positive or negative self-perception may be linked to one’s perceived self-efficacy that develops under the influence of both past performance experiences and the current state of preparation for the upcoming performances. Some aspects of this finding are consistent with previous research highlighting the importance of positive self-perceptions in management of MPA. Papageorgi et al. (2007) note that a positive view of one’s self is important in cultivating confidence and self-esteem, traits that are seen as facilitators of adaptive MPA coping.

Finally, the findings of the study indicate that students’ attitudes toward and management of MPA are highly influenced by the social support around them. The instrumental teachers’ role appeared to be highly significant. A positive teacher attitude encouraged students’ external help-seeking efforts. Interestingly, student’s views of institutional support in MPA-related matters appeared to be influenced and perhaps shaped by their interaction with their instrumental teachers. For example, students who expressed having a supportive relationship with their teacher saw the health and well-being offerings and the institution generally in a more positive light. The reason perhaps for this was the encouragement of their use provided by the instrumental teacher. In contrast, some students questioned whether their instrumental teacher was the best person to offer help with MPA and were open to the idea of acquiring performance skills from other professionals. The dissonance between these different perspectives creates an opportunity to reconsider Jørgensen’s (2000) question on whether the main instrumental teacher can be held responsible for every aspect of students’ learning in higher music education. The assumption that students enter post-secondary education with tools that allow them to take active possession of their learning and development is unwarranted (Jørgensen, 2000). Seeking help for the “invisible” challenges of performing, as one student called it, may not be easy for all. Thus, a more integrated approach involving both the teachers and the institutional leadership is a necessary step forward to implement effective support structures and normalize MPA as an academic emotion for music students.

The limitations of this study should be noted. First, a small number of students were involved in the interview process (n = 10). While this number provided a valuable insight into the MPA phenomenon, generalizations on the topic cannot be made. Second, having the instrumental teachers’ and institutional leadership’s voices on the matter would have provided a better understanding of how MPA is addressed at the institutional level. Therefore, further research exploring these parties’ views would generate a more comprehensive understanding of MPA in Higher Music Education. In addition, future studies utilizing educational theories complementary to SRL, such as co-regulation and socially shared regulation of learning and performance (Hadwin et al., 2011; Järvelä et al., 2019) may prove to be fruitful in capturing MPA coping strategies in highly interactive and dynamic performance environments. It would be valuable to investigate what MPA coping would entail when studied as a collective effort-taking place in a shared space of music making.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-pom-10.1177_03057356211034573 – Supplemental material for Higher music education students’ experiences and management of performance anxiety: A qualitative study

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-pom-10.1177_03057356211034573 for Higher music education students’ experiences and management of performance anxiety: A qualitative study by Damla Tahirbegi in Psychology of Music

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was partially funded by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT).

ORCID iD

Damla Tahirbegi

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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