Scale of basic psychological needs to musical activity: Measuring basic psychological needs in musical activity

Abstract

Basic psychological needs (BPN) are a central construct of the self-determination theory (SDT). However, there is a lack of instruments specifically adapted to measuring these in the field of music. The aim of this study was to validate a Spanish-language scale of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of BPN in musical activity. The participants were 339 musicians aged 18–65 years old. Internal consistency and convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated by comparing five models using confirmatory factor analysis and a multi-trait multi-method approach. The construct validity was evaluated with respect to satisfaction/fun experienced when performing music. The results indicated a good fit of the model in relation to the measure of each BPN. Satisfaction of the BPN positively predicted satisfaction/fun in performing and practicing music and dissatisfaction produced the opposite effect. The adapted instrument contributes to research on motivation in music education.

Keywords

motivation satisfaction musical performance education competition autonomy

Musical performance, whether practiced as a hobby or professionally, may be an intrinsically rewarding activity for a wide number of psychological reasons associated with pleasure, commitment, and meaning (Lamont, 2011, 2012; Rickard, 2014). It is seen as a source of deep emotional experiences (Gabrielsson, 2011) that enhance social interaction, the feeling of belonging to a group, collaboration and cooperation, and contribute to the construction and maintenance of personal and social identity (Hargreaves & North, 1999; Woody & McPherson, 2010). These factors are associated with psychological wellbeing, which can be a key factor to understanding engagement and optimal functioning in the practice of musical activity (Ascenso et al., 2017; Croom, 2015). However, the learning required to perform music is a challenging task from the outset, requiring physical, mental, and emotional effort and continued perseverance and persistence (McPherson et al., 2015). It is also important to approach the task in the right way, assimilating difficulties as part of the learning process (McPherson & Davidson, 2002), as occurs in other disciplines such as sport (Swann et al., 2015). The challenge of maintaining the intrinsic motivation to study music along the long road of a musical apprenticeship has led to a need to study the associated factors, a task that has been approached from different theoretical perspectives (Hallam, 2014). The findings from empirical research show associations between participation in musical activity, the development of an intrinsic motivation to study music, and a positive social environment, but these associations must be understood within a unified framework, such as that provided by the self-determination theory (SDT) (Evans, 2015). This methodology is widely used to investigate motivation in the practice of sports, but its application in the field of music is still novel.

Basic psychological needs, motivation, and fun

The SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985) is a macro-theory addressing the development and functioning of the personality within social contexts, which holds that it is crucial to understand how environmental factors facilitate or hinder the natural processes of intrinsic motivation, self- regulation and healthy psychological development (Deci & Ryan, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This macro-theory is made up of a series of mini theories. One of these, the Basic Psychological Needs Theory, posits that human beings need to satisfy three basic psychological needs (BPN): autonomy, defined as the need to feel that one is the agent and the origin of one’s own actions and that these are expressions of self; competence, based on the propensity to interact effectively with the environment and experience effectiveness in interactions with it; and relatedness, referring to feeling connected with significant others who are important for oneself or who belong to the same social environment, feeling part of a community, caring for others, and being cared for by them (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). BPN are universal evolved organismic requirements that are inherent to all individuals, regardless of their sex, age, and culture. They act as psychological mediators between environmental factors and motivation, with cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Ryan & La Guardia, 2000), since people will guide their behavior toward tasks that meet these needs and provide the “psychological nutrients” necessary for healthy and optimal development and growth, and will avoid those that leave these needs unmet or frustrated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In this respect, then, if BPNs are satisfied when an activity is performed in a particular domain, the experience will be pleasant and this will motivate one to achieve higher quality in their practice, with positive outcomes in performance, persistence, and creativity and in the construction of healthy psychological resources (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & La Guardia, 2000). By contrast, if any of the BPNs is not satisfied or frustrated when the activity is performed, this will act in detriment of psychological wellbeing and the intrinsic motivation toward practice, with negative consequences such as maladaptive functioning (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). This relationship is embodied in the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation proposed by Vallerand (1997, 2012) and Vallerand and Losier (1999), in which BPNs work as psychological mediators between social factors and motivation. This model proposes a causal sequence of events that involve social factors (such as motivational climate, focused on the task or ego) that act on the psychological mediators (the BPNs) to encourage an intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, which will result in more or less positive affective results.

Studies that have analyzed the relationship between the satisfaction of BPNs and motivation have found that high levels of satisfaction positively predict self-determined motivation and the internalization and acceptance of aspects of practice that are not intrinsically attractive (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013), while low levels of satisfaction were associated with more extrinsically regulated types of motivation and negative consequences, such as exhaustion among athletes (Li et al., 2013).

Intrinsic motivation is often accompanied by positive emotions, such as enjoyment and fun, while extrinsic motivation is often associated with negative emotions, such as boredom and lack of interest (Amabile, 1983; Hennessey, 2001; Ntoumanis, 2001; Stanko-Kaczmarek, 2012). Some authors see fun as an important positive motivational and adaptive consequence in the study of the students’ motivation (Ntoumanis, 2001) and boredom as a grim consequence of demotivation (Méndez-Giménez et al., 2016). Studies of adolescents in a general academic setting have used fun as a measure of satisfaction and intrinsic interest in school, and the results indicate a positive relationship between fun and interest in task-oriented schoolwork (Castillo et al., 2001). In the field of physical activity and sport, fun is referred to as one of the main reasons for commitment to practice (e.g., Méndez-Giménez et al., 2016; Méndez-Giménez & Pallasá-Manteca, 2018; Moreno-Murcia et al., 2009; Pulido et al., 2014; Torregrosa et al., 2008), since having fun practicing an activity promotes a feeling of enjoyment, defined as “a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking and fun” (Scanlan, Carpenter, et al., 1993, p. 6). Similarly, fun is associated with intrinsic satisfaction in the practice of an activity and, in fact, the instrument developed originally in English to measure fun in the educational context is called the Intrinsic Satisfaction Classroom Scale (Nicholls et al., 1985, 1989). Duda and Nicholls (1992) subsequently adapted this instrument to the practice of sport with the Sport Satisfaction Instrument, while retaining the idea of fun as synonymous with satisfaction in the name of the scale. Satisfaction/fun has been shown to be a strong predictor of sport commitment in young athletes, so it can be considered within a broad motivational context as an important ingredient for promoting participation and avoiding abandonment (Granero-Gallegos et al., 2014; Sousa et al., 2007).

In the context of musical education, research within the theoretical framework of the SDT has found a positive relationship between BPN satisfaction and persistence and commitment in musical studies during childhood and adolescence (Evans, 2009), along with greater involvement, enjoyment, and desire to continue the activity (Freer & Evans, 2018; Legutki, 2010). A longitudinal study in Australia revealed that students who felt that their BPNs were satisfied expressed a greater interest and appreciation of music associated with their personal aspirations, and found it more fun; by contrast, students who had abandoned the activity reported having had experiences of dissatisfaction or frustration associated with their BPNs (Evans et al., 2013). In the setting of higher education, satisfaction of autonomy has been associated with higher quality practice (Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard, 2015; Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016), and a greater capacity for coping with stress and better examination performance (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2017), while satisfaction of competence and autonomy have been related with flow in music performance (Valenzuela et al., 2018). With regard to motivation and behavior, results in the field of music coincide with those of the field of sport, since BPN satisfaction is a predictor of autonomous motivation, and correlates positively with a greater frequency of practice, better quality practice, and a preference for challenging tasks (Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016). With regard to the affective aspects, BPN satisfaction has been positively associated with feelings of happiness, relaxation, excitement, and pride and negatively with negative affective states, such as feeling nervous (Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016).

Measuring BPN satisfaction and dissatisfaction

As a result of the expansion of BPN research in the field of physical activity and sport, several scales have been developed to measure satisfaction. Of these, the Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale (Wilson et al., 2006), the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006), and the Échelle des Besoins Fondamentaux en Sport (Gillet et al., 2008) have been adapted and validated for the Spanish setting: for example, the Escala de Satisfacción de las Necesidades Psicológicas Básicas (“Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale”; Moreno-Murcia et al., 2011), the Escala de Necesidades Psicológicas Básicas en el Ejercicio (“Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale”; Moreno-Murcia et al., 2008), and the validation of the Échelle des Besoins Fondamentaux en Sport in the context of sport (Domínguez et al., 2010). These instruments measure BPN satisfaction using both positive and negative items. However, the results of some studies in the general area found that individuals who were in agreement with items that alluded positively to an unfulfilled need, such as “I feel incompetent,” “I feel lonely,” or “I feel controlled,” desired greater competence, greater relatedness with others, or greater autonomy in their lives, respectively. However, disagreeing with positive items was not a predictor of a desire for more experiences of the corresponding need (Sheldon & Gunz, 2009). These findings were interpreted on the premise that BPNs work as motives, rather than simply rewards for experience and, in this regard, an unmet need can predict motives to make changes in life in the pursuit of greater satisfaction (Sheldon & Gunz, 2009). For this reason, Sheldon and Hilpert (2012) suggested that positive items and inverse or negative items are more than psychometric opponents and may differ substantially in interpretation and effects. On the basis of these considerations, they created a scale, the Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs (BMPN), which includes an equal number of items to measure the satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the three BPNs, offering the possibility to measure both constructs as distinct dimensions.

In SDT, BPNs are considered as a multidimensional construct in which each need acts both separately and in combination with the others in the prediction of results (Johnston & Finney, 2010). With regard to the dimensionality of the scale, studies for the validation of different instruments for measuring BPNs (e.g., Álvarez, 2015; Domínguez et al., 2010; Gillet et al., 2008; González-Cutre et al., 2015; León et al., 2011; Moreno-Murcia et al., 2011, 2012; Wilson et al., 2006) have confirmed that the three needs are moderately interrelated, but have different effects, so combining the three factors in one would not be a problem, but might possibly mask patterns of significant distinct effects with respect to each need (Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006).

Although research on motivation in musical activity in the past decade has been driven by studies conducted from the perspective of SDT (e.g., Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016; Krause et al., 2019), with similar results to those found in the area of sport, the development of this approach in music is still in its infancy (Evans, 2015). A systematic review revealed a lack of instruments for measuring these constructs in BPN research in the field of music in Spanish (Álvarez, 2015), and the BMPN, in English, was found to be the o scale adapted to the field of music (Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016; Evans et al., 2013). The aim of this study was to adapt and validate the BMPN to the field of music in the Spanish language.

Method

Participants

A total of 339 musicians participated, 170 men and 169 women, aged between 18 and 65 years of age (M = 39.83, SD = 13.61), of whom 100 were choral musicians, 86 wind players, 42 string players, 33 keyboard players, 16 percussionists, and 62 other instruments. Recruitment was carried out through formal entities (Superior Conservatory of Music) and informal entities (choirs, musical groups); participants filled out an online form. They all had Spanish as their main language, and they all gave their informed consent in accordance with the guidelines of the ethics committee of the University of the Basque Country (M10_2016_171).

Measurement instruments

BPN in musical activity

The 18-item scale of Sheldon and Gunz (2009) and Sheldon et al. (2011), known as the Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs (BMPN), was adapted. The scale contains six items in each of the dimensions of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness, three presented in a positive manner and three in a negative manner. The instrument was translated into Spanish by a direct (or forward) translation process, which consists of one group of translators translating and another group judging their equivalence (Carretero-Dios & Pérez, 2005); see the Appendix for the full scale. The scale was administered with the instructions, “Read each of the following statements carefully, thinking about how true each one is for you,” and scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = completely disagree, 5 = fully agree). The Cronbach’s alphas for the six subscales of three items were as follows (positive and negative drafting), .79 and .82 for Relatedness, .83 and .79 for Competence, and .76 and .78 for Autonomy. After recoding the items that were written negatively, the Cronbach’s alphas for Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness were .81, .83, and .80, respectively.

Satisfaction/fun in the practice of music

The Satisfaction/Fun in Musical Activity scale, adapted from the Sport Satisfaction Instrument of Duda and Nicholls, translated by Balaguer et al. (1997) was used. Expert advice was also sought, respecting the criterion of changing only what was strictly necessary to preserve the validity of the construct. This questionnaire consists of eight items, of which five measure Fun (e.g., “I normally have fun making music”) and three measure Boredom (e.g., “When I practice, I want the study period/rehearsal to end quickly”). The Cronbach’s alphas were .85 and .47, respectively, so we decided to use only the first subscale. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using robust standard error estimates, with the following Satorra–Bentler (S-B) results: χ²(5) = 336.02, p = .234, comparative fit index (*CFI) = .994, root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) = .033 (.000–.087), root mean square residual (SRMR) = . 037.

Data analysis

A CFA (Byrne, 2006) was used, and the multi-trait-multi-method matrix (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) was applied to examine the convergent and discriminant validity of the construct of satisfaction of psychological needs. Three trait factors (Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness), and two method factors (Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction) were included. To this end, five nested models were compared to generate evidence of the dimensionality of the data. EQS 6.1 software was used to perform the CFAs. As the preliminary analyses showed a lack of multivariate normality, the S-B chi-square statistic (S-B χ²) and robust standard error estimates were used, which serve as a correction for χ² when distribution assumptions are violated. Goodness of fit of the data was evaluated using multiple criteria (Byrne, 2008): the *CFI was used as an incremental fit index, while the *RMSEA and the SRMR were used as absolute measures of fit, determining the degree to which the model predicts the covariance matrix. To determine the goodness of fit, the appropriate cut-off criteria were selected as a starting point (Hu & Bentler, 1999) and attention was paid to whether the results approached or exceeded the strict limits (shown in brackets): χ²/df ⩽ 2.0; CFI ⩾ .90 (.95); SRMR ⩽ .08 (.07); RMSEA ⩽ .10 (.06; Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Comparison of models

Model 1, the CTCM (correlated traits/correlated methods), contained five latent factors: three factors of psychological needs (latent traits) and two factors of satisfaction-dissatisfaction (methods), and was the basic hypothetical model used to compare alternative models (Figure 1). Model 2, the NTCM (no traits/correlated methods), had an identical specification to that of the CTCM model, except that trait factors were excluded, as shown in Figure 2 (Byrne, 2012; Widaman, 1985). Model 3, the CTNM (correlated traits/no methods), was the same as Model 1, but the specifications of latent satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors were removed (Figure 3). Model 4, the PCTCM (perfectly correlated traits/freely correlated methods), was the same as Model 1, except that the covariances between the latent needs factors were limited to 1.0 (Figure 4). Model 5, the CTUM (correlated traits/uncorrelated methods), was the same as Model 1, except that the covariance between the satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors were eliminated, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 1.

CTCM (Correlated Traits/Correlated Methods).

Figure 2.

NTCM (No Traits/Correlated Methods).

Figure 3.

CTNM (Correlated Traits/No Methods).

Figure 4.

PCTCM (Perfectly Correlated Traits/Freely Correlated Methods).

Figure 5.

CTUM (Correlated Traits/Uncorrelated Methods).

Nested comparisons using the differences in the chi-square test and change in *CFI (Byrne, 2006) were made between models to determine the convergent and divergent validity of the scale. The chi-square value between models (p = .01, Cheung & Rensvold, 2002) were used to determine whether two models were substantially different. Based on the contributions of Sheldon and Hilpert (2012), the comparisons between the models were as follows: Model 1 with Model 2, or comparison between a model specifying the three BPN (Model 1, CTCM) and a model in which they are not specified (Model 2, NTCM). Since these two models are nested, a comparison of this model with the CTCM would provide a statistical evaluation of the emergence of effects associated with the different traits (Brown, 2015). First, the goodness of fit for the NTCM model compared with the CTCM model is examined. This determines the extent to which the independent factors of the traits are correlated and confirms whether the subscales of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction converge in the measurement of the corresponding latent psychological need. This is, in short, a method to confirm convergent validity. Model 1 with Model 3, or comparison between a model that specifies the latent Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction factors (Model 1, CTCM) and a model that does not specify these two factors (Model 3, CTNM): this method examines the extent to which independent measures of the methods are correlated. The best fit for Model 1 establishes the validity of construction of the factors of the method by showing that the corresponding needs subscales converge in the measurement of the corresponding latent factor of method. Model 1 with Model 4, or comparison between a model in which the psychological needs factors correlate freely (CTCM) and a model in which the need factors are restricted as perfectly correlated (PCTCM). A best fit for Model 1 suggests that the needs factors are not collinear and converge on different constructions (discriminant validity at a matrix level). This would also suggest that the three needs should be reviewed separately by researchers, rather than being treated as a single factor. The greater the difference between the χ² values and *CFI, the stronger the evidence of discriminant validity. Model 1 with Model 5, or comparison between a model in which the Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction factors correlate freely (CTCM) and a model in which the Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction factors are specified as uncorrelated (CTUM). If the Models 1 and 5 are adjusted equally well, this would suggest that the different methods are unbiased indicators of their latent traits. By contrast, a large Δχ² (and/or a considerable Δ*CFI) would suggest a bias of common method, and as such, a lack of discriminant validity between the measurement methods (Byrne, 2012).

Results

Goodness-of-fit indices

The goodness-of-fit indices off the five BMPN models were calculated. See Table 1 for a summary of the results. The results indicated that Models 1 and 5 were the only ones that meet the rigorous cut-off criteria for the fit of the model (Byrne, 2006; Kline, 2005).

Table 1.

Goodness-of-Fit Indices for All Models.

	χ²/df	*CFI	*RMSEA	SRMR
Model 1	1.82	.958	.049 (.038–.060)	.045
Model 2	5.06	.755	.110 (.101–.118)	.088
Model 3	6.05	.699	.122 (.114–.130)	.105
Model 4	2.84	.905	.074 (.064–.083)	.059
Model 5	1.83	.957	.040 (.039–.060)	.053

CFI: Comparative Fit Index; *RMSEA: Root Mean Square Error Aproximation; SRMR: Root Mean Square Residual.

Construct validity

The convergent validity of the BPN was tested by comparing Model 1 with Model 2. Δχ² was significant (p < .001) and the difference in the fit was substantial (Δ *CFI = .203), suggesting that the independent measures of the same factor of psychological need are correlated. The convergent validity of the satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors was tested by comparing Model 1 with Model 3. The Δχ² was significant (p < .001) and the difference in the fit was substantial (Δ *CFI = . 259), suggesting that the independent measures of the same method factor (Satisfaction vs. Dissatisfaction) are correlated. As a result, the method factors must be modeled using CFA to produce an appropriate fit (Table 2).

Table 2.

Comparison of Models.

	Difference in
	χ²	df	*CFI
Convergent validity
Model 1 vs Model 2	471.91	21	.203
Model 1 vs Model 3	592.96	19	.259
Discriminant validity
Model 1 vs Model 4	123.91	3	.053
Model 1 vs Model 5	2.82	1	.001

CFI: Comparative Fit Index.

The discriminant validity of the BPN was tested by comparing Model 1 with Model 4. The Δχ² was significant (p < .001) and the difference in the fit was substantial (Δ *CFI = . 053), suggesting that the three needs factors must be distinct from each other. Finally, the discrimination of the methods was tested by comparing Model 1 with Model 5. The Δχ2 was not significant (p > .70) and the difference in the fit was not substantial (Δ *CFI = .001), suggesting that the evidence of the discriminant validity of the Satisfaction factors was substantially stronger than for BPN, indicating a small measurement bias in the methods (Table 2). The estimated parameters for Model 5 are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Parameters Estimated in Model 5.

	Traits			Methods
	R	C	A	S	D
Satisfaction items
1. I feel a sense of contact with people who care for me, and whom I care for	.48			.65
2. I feel close and connected with other people who are important to me	.44			.56
3. I feel a strong sense of intimacy with the people I spend time with	.55			.48
4. I am successful when I do difficult tasks and projects		.78		.22
5. I take on and master hard challenges		.77		.15
6. I do well even at the hard things		.80		.04
7. I am free to do things my own way			.69	.03
8. My choices reflect my true self			.67	.22
9. I do what really interests me			.79	.07
Dissatisfaction items
10. I feel lonely	−.62				.51
11. I feel unappreciated by one or more people who are important to me	−.58				.57
12. I have disagreements or conflicts with people I usually get along with	−.43				.55
13. I experience some kind of failure, or I am unable to do well at something		−.51			.56
14. I do some stupid things that make me feel incompetent		−.40			.57
15. I struggle to do some things I should be good at		−.55			.57
16. I have a lot of pressures I can do without			−.40		.59
17. There are people telling me what I have to do			−.51		.44
18. I have to do things against my will			−.42		.58

Note. R: Relatedness; C: Competence; A: Autonomy; S: Satisfaction; D: Dissatisfaction.

Analysis of Satisfaction/Fun in musical activity

Table 4 shows the correlations between all variables. On an individual level, the factors that show the highest correlation with Fun are General Satisfaction, Autonomy, and Relatedness. Positive associations are also observed for all variables that measure satisfaction (general and specific), and negative associations are observed for all variables that measure dissatisfaction (general and specific). The BMPN scales were used as predictors of Fun in musical activity. We first examined the three subscales of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness. The R² for this analysis was .492 (p < .001), and Autonomy and Relatedness were significant individually (β = .25, p < .001 and .24, p < .01, respectively, for each variable). The analysis was then performed introducing the six BPN dimensions. In this case, the R² was .508 (p < .001), and Relatedness satisfaction, Autonomy satisfaction, and Autonomy dissatisfaction were significant individually (β = .26, p < .001; .17, p < .01; and −.15, p < .05, respectively, for each variable). Finally, the analysis was performed with General Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction: the R² was .491 (p < .001), and both factors were significant individually (β = .36, p < .001; −.23, p < .001 respectively.).

Table 4.

Bivariate Correlations Between All Factors.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1. Fun	1
2. Relatedness	.42**	1
3. Competence	.37**	.50**	1
4. Autonomy	.43**	.54**	.67**	1
5. Relatedness S.	.40**	.73**	.34**	.33**	1
6. Relatedness D.	−.28**	−.73**	−.37**	−.48**	−.30**	1
7. Competence S.	.28**	.30**	.65**	.29**	.38**	−.09	1
8. Competence D.	−.30**	−.54**	−.69**	−.49**	−.23**	.58**	−.33**	1
9. Autonomy S.	.38**	.43**	.37**	.58**	.44**	−.22**	.55**	−.30**	1
10. Autonomy D.	−.32**	−.51**	−.41**	−.75**	−.18**	.56**	−.15**	.57**	−.31**	1
11. General S.	.44**	.60**	.57**	.50**	.75**	−.25**	.81**	−.36**	.83**	−.27**	1
12. General D.	−.36**	−.70**	−.57**	−.68**	−.28**	.85**	−.22**	.85**	−.33**	.85**	−.35**

Note. S: Satisfaction; D: Dissatisfaction.

p < .001.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to validate a Spanish-language instrument to measure BPN satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the field of musical activity. The new instrument is an adaptation of the BMPN (Sheldon & Hilpert, 2012) and has been evaluated in terms of its convergent and discriminant validity to measure satisfaction and dissatisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in performing music, by comparing different models.

The adapted BMPN showed a good fit of the data to the hypothesized model. The resulting pattern of the comparisons of models indicated that the three trait factors and both method factors are statistically significant for the hypothetical model, providing evidence of convergent validity. We first determined whether the factors of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness correlated statistically and whether the subscales of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction with each factor converged in the measurement of the corresponding psychological need. The results of the comparison of Models 1 and 2 support the convergent validity of the adapted instrument in the measurement of each need. The convergent validity of BPN satisfaction and dissatisfaction was observed in the comparison of Models 1 and 3, when it was confirmed that both dimensions were interrelated. In terms of discriminant validity, comparison of Models 1 and 4 confirmed that the three psychological needs are distinct from each other. The comparison of Models 1 and 5, however, revealed a small bias in the measurement of satisfaction, which appeared to be stronger in relation to the three BPNs. These results suggest that the construct of BPNs measured by BMPN is made up of three separate needs factors, measured by two methods: items of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. On a theoretical level, recent studies have highlighted an important distinction between low BPN satisfaction and BPN dissatisfaction and frustration, suggesting that dissatisfaction and frustration are more powerful predictors of ill-being and lack of motivation than a low score in the measure of satisfaction (Bhavsar et al., 2019; Costa et al., 2015). The ability of the adapted BMPN, contributes to the study of BPNs in musical activity, as it offers a greater capacity for measurement than other available instruments, such as the BPNS (Johnston & Finney, 2010; Sheldon & Hilpert, 2012), and can be used to analyze the unique effects of each of these dimensions. Furthermore, similarly to when the BMPN is applied in a general setting (Sheldon & Hilpert, 2012), the results in musical activity show that each psychological need constitutes a dimension that is independent from the others and, as such, should be measured separately, as previously suggested by other authors (e.g., Bartholomew et al., 2011; Costa et al., 2015). Therefore, this instrument could be used as three separate subscales, each corresponding to needs of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness. In the educational setting, these three constructs have been associated with more frequent and higher quality study practice, and with a preference to undertake challenges and positive feelings associated with greater self-esteem and enjoyment of practice (Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016). Along these lines, the study of the influence of the social environment—teachers and peers—on BPN satisfaction and dissatisfaction can be oriented toward an investigation of how these factors relate to various aspects of educational practice, either in terms of specific learning outcomes, or the type of task-setting, and affective results, that are of fundamental importance in maintaining and promoting intrinsic motivation toward learning music.

Construct validity was examined with respect to the satisfaction/fun provided by the activity. Fun was seen to be positively related with all dimensions of satisfaction, primarily with satisfaction of autonomy and relatedness, and negatively with dimensions of dissatisfaction, both overall and specifically to each BPN. The variables that were included in the model for the prediction of fun were, in the following order: autonomy satisfaction, relatedness satisfaction, and autonomy dissatisfaction, the latter with a negative sign. The model could explain 50.8% of the variance, thus proving the construct validity of the scale. Moreover, these results show that satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the same need—in this case, that of autonomy—have different effects, confirming that they constitute different dimensions. It is also notable that, in the field of music, the psychological need to feel oneself the agent of the action is a key ingredient for enjoying the activity, along with the need to feel connectedness with others. This finding, that might appear contradictory, can be understood in the light of the duality that occurs in music performance, in which personal expression and the particular way that each person experiences and makes music is just as important as the emotional connection and sense of commitment that is created with one’s fellow musicians—since it is primarily a group activity—and with the audience (Clarke et al., 2010; Gabrielsson et al., 2016; Woody & McPherson, 2010). In this respect, the results are consistent with the nature of music as an expressive artistic activity and with its social character (Ashley, 2014; Clayton, 2016; Cross, 2016). The results of this study point to a difference between musical activity and sports. In the latter, the variable that most strongly relates to motivation and satisfaction with the activity is satisfaction of the need for competence (Moreno-Murcia et al., 2012; Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006).

One of the limitations of this article is that this was a single study, in which all participants were adults. The replicability of the results will therefore have to be demonstrated in subsequent studies and expanded to other populations. Construct validity was examined with respect to the satisfaction/fun provided by performing music. It would be of interest to investigate the possible association of BPN satisfaction and dissatisfaction and other affective consequences—both positive and negative—that individuals experience when practicing and studying music.

The results obtained in this study support the desirability of further developing instruments to adequately operationalize SDT constructs in the field of music. There is a case, too, for including other constructs, such as BPN frustration, in order to explore social environment conditions that can generate psychological support, neglect, or frustration among individuals involved in musical activities. In the field of musical education, the availability of appropriate instruments will help further knowledge of the influence exerted by the educational and family setting on the satisfaction and motivation of those who embark on the long journey of musical training.

Footnotes

Appendix

Escala de Necesidades Psicológicas Básicas en la Actividad Musical.

Satisfacción de Relación

Siento que me relaciono con personas que me aprecian, y a quien yo aprecio

Me siento cercano y conectado con personas que son importantes para mí

Siento una gran familiaridad con las personas con las que suelo estar

Insatisfacción de Relación

Me siento solo

Me siento poco valorado por una o más personas importantes para mí

Tengo desacuerdos o conflictos con personas con las que habitualmente estoy

Satisfacción de Competencia

Tengo éxito al hacer tareas o proyectos difíciles

Asumo y domino grandes retos

Hago bien hasta las cosas más difíciles

Insatisfacción de Competencia

Noto un cierto fracaso, o que soy incapaz de hacer ciertas cosas bien

Hago algunas tonterías que me hacen sentir incompetente

Me cuesta mucho hacer ciertas cosas que se supone que tendría que hacer bien

Satisfacción de Autonomía

Soy libre de hacer las cosas a mi manera

Mis elecciones expresan mi verdadero ser

Hago lo que realmente me interesa

Insatisfacción de Autonomía

Me sentiría mejor sin estar sometido a tanta presión

Hay gente que me dice lo que debo hacer

Tengo que hacer cosas en contra de mi voluntad

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Silvia Arribas-Galarraga

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