Visiting virtuosos’ expressivity across cultures: Acoustic analysis of a sanjo virtuoso’s performance

Abstract

Studies on music performance have received greater attention in the last several decades since the establishment of musical performance studies, and emotional expressivity has taken an important place in the study of emotional communication. The methodological or thematic integration of these domains in the study of music performance may expand the rationale for studying performance. The purpose of this study was to explore a virtuoso’s expressivity in terms of sanjo-specific features, including jangdan, indicating a rhythmic pattern, and jo, a structural feature that conveys emotional meanings. We investigated tempo and dynamics in the melodies within the unit of a jangdan across jo and those acoustic cues related to the jo transition. The findings suggest that the virtuoso, Kim Juk-pa, differentiated tempo and dynamics in the conveyance of structural features of jo. Tempo and dynamics were indicative of a jo shift, acting as a clue for her individuality. This provides current performers with critical sources for understanding the virtuoso’s expressivity corresponding with jo’s changes. The sanjo virtuoso’s individuality could be further elaborated via multi-dimensional analysis of historically informed recordings; this approach to music performance would lead to improved learning, transmission, and creation of new forms of music across cultures.

Keywords

virtuoso’s expressivity music performance acoustic analysis sanjo performer’s individuality

Traditional Korean education for professional musicians has been officially established at institutions of higher musical learning for decades. Since the late 20th century, the significant recognition of traditional musicians’ artistry and cultural heritage in Korea has led to its inclusion in the core music curriculum. Sanjo, a virtuosic instrumental music that stems from traditional vocal music, is a part of this traditional music. The art of sanjo is generally described with a rhythmic pattern called jangdan and jo, a collection of jangdan, indicating “idiomatic musical expression, feeling, or mood” (Lee et al., 2009). Since the creation of sanjo, historically acclaimed musicians have created their own musical styles thereof performed with a gayageum, the12-string zither, generating various schools of sanjo within the practice (Howard et al., 2008). These musicians have achieved recognition as creators and virtuosos who express their artistry with their own sanjo, and many disciples have been drawn to these methods, forming the lineage or generation of sanjo (Kim, 2016).

Most traditional music majors choose a virtuoso’s sanjo to study. In assimilating themselves with the master’s artistry, performers rigorously endeavor to learn a sanjo virtuoso’s performance style. Despite its significance as a cultural or curricular phenomenon, investigations into sanjo virtuosos’ individualized expressivity in performance have been limited, while sanjo studies on transcript analysis have been more common. The nature of sanjo and its evolutionary tendency facilitates a transition toward sanjo performance studies in the form of script analysis; this is a critical aspect of musical performance studies (Cook, 2013).

In this study, we explored a sanjo virtuoso’s performance in terms of the relationship between the sanjo-specific features known as jangdan and jo. Acoustic parameters related to those features may provide critical sources for learning a performer’s expressivity as found in acoustic analysis of expressive components (Leech-Wilkinson, 2010; Spiro et al., 2010; Timmers, 2007). To this end, we chose to analyze a historic recording of sanjo to reveal the virtuoso’s expressivity and examine its meanings in the context of transmission, learning, and the creation of traditional music.

Musical performance studies

Musical performance studies as a field of research have continued to grow over the decades. The fundamental idea of musical performance studies is focusing on music performance as the research target (Cook, 2001); thus, empirical approaches to performance could be a part of this domain. Such an approach to musical performance studies has also contributed to the discovery of the cognitive mechanisms reflected in performance (Palmer, 1997). As such, an interdisciplinary approach to music performance through the lens of disciplines, such as psychology, anthropology, and philosophy, has led to the identification of theoretical or methodological approaches to studying music performance. The research domains include not only historically informed performances but also live forms; the study of the latter focuses on the performances as researched objects (Doğantan-Dack, 2012). The establishment of the Research Centre for Musical Performance as Creative Practice and the Research Centre for the History and Analysis of Recorded Music appears to support music performance studies. The research goal of understanding music as performance has been successful in turning attention toward performers over the last few decades (Cook, 2001) and has provided a place where musicologists, theorists, and performers coexist at the center of music performance (Song, 2017). Empirical exploration of musical performances could be expanded as it finds a way to a broad repertoire of music or to give meaning to traditional music. Moreover, as discussed by Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996), performers’ approaches to musical performance are clarified by connecting the music with the performer. The attempt to investigate a virtuoso’s expressivity in the context of sanjo offers a detailed representation of their performance.

Performers’ expressivity

A performer’s expressions play a key role in identifying their individuality, and its definitions can be described from diverse perspectives. Theorists have emphasized performers’ expressivity as an embodiment of the musical structure of music scores (Berry, 1989; Clarke, 1988). Palmer (1997) underscored the concept of the “microstructure of performance” (p. 117), which is achieved by acoustic features in differentiating performances. Such differences are potentially associated with a specific performer’s cognitive or strategic approach to performance. As for the principle of a performer’s approach, Rink (1990, 2002) suggested the notion of “performer’s analysis,” through which performers integrate their conscious analysis with their intuition, so-called “informed intuition,” with respect to their own approach to shaping music during performance. Godøy (2010) illustrates musical gesture as motion-like attributes communicated to perceived sound, leading to greater attention to empirical investigation of its mechanism during performance. Hatten’s (2004, 2006) notion of shaping musical gesture as an aspect of a performer’s expression shows that human musical movement accounts for sound images imagined or intended by performers at multiple levels, including the motive, thematic, developmental, and higher structural levels (Hatten, 2004). In addition, he outlined musical gestures formed by performers’ attempts to manipulate dynamics, articulation, texture, spacing, and register. Conceptualization of the musical gesture corresponds to the term “expressive gesture” as a source of individual performance style (Leech-Wilkinson, 2006, 2009).

Leech-Wilkinson (2009, 2010) articulated that a performer’s individuality deviates from a period-bound style or accumulative convention, as does the similarly termed “expressive deviation” (Seashore, 1938) although conventional forms of expressivity for the period are also important for identifying a performer’s expressivity. These varied perspectives reflect multiple aspects of a performer’s expression. Recognizing its complexity, Juslin (2003) attempted to discuss musical expression more clearly, suggesting that its multiple dimensions “convey the structure of the music, express emotions, exhibit motor precision, [are] suggestive of human motion and gesture, and deviate [from] stylistic expectations in creative and aesthetically pleasing ways” (p. 290; see also the GERMS model for more details).

Studies on acoustic cues in performance generally target observing a performer’s individuality, performance style, or “ways [of] not performing scores literally” (Leech-Wilkinson, 2009, p. 255). Spectrographic analysis programs developed provide a means of observing music performances, namely, greater details of acoustic parameters. In particular, a variation of timing or dynamics in performances articulates the individuality of performers (Leech-Wilkinson, 2010; Repp, 1990, 1992, 1994; Todd, 1992). A conceptual framework regarding timing at the macro or micro level of music structure (Repp, 1992) or timing taxonomy, “basic tempo choice, global tempo variation, and local tempo variation” (Zhou & Fabian, 2019), is also useful for consistent performance comparisons. Although this conceptual frame targets Western music repertoires or genres, it offers a rationale for exploring structural features or music forms culturally established, contributing to identifying an essence of traditional music.

A performer’s emotional expressivity, as achieved via acoustic cue utilization, is another critical source for understanding emotion-relevant music performances (Juslin, 2000; Juslin & Laukka, 2003). For instance, temporal variation and dynamics are available for communicating emotions (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 1996), and some evidence shows that emotions are expressed through flexible variations of varied acoustic cues, including tempo, mode, register, dynamics, and articulation (Eerola et al., 2013; Scherer et al., 2017). Psychoacoustic cues in music were also found to help decode social relational intentions (Aucouturier & Canonne, 2017). Furthermore, empirical findings have identified what are known as basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and tenderness) as the most communicative, in contrast to complex emotions such as desire, pain, and calm, although complex emotions are also expressed in performance (Juslin, 2013; Juslin & Lindstrom, 2016). Findings on ornamentations that play a role in expressing emotions in certain music genres (Timmers & Ashley, 2007) facilitate the observation of emotional expressivity in a wide range of music other than Western genres.

The present study

Previous studies have focused on performers’ emotional expressivity, but few have addressed the association between emotions, music structure, and acoustic parameters of various components (Timmers, 2007). Most importantly, empirical findings on music expression have rarely been linked to virtuosity in the context of a specific music genre. This study attempted to explore virtuoso Kim Juk-pa’s expressivity using her historically informed recording. It bears repeating that jangdan, indicating rhythmic pattern, and jo, indicating emotion or mood, are described as core features of sanjo (Kim, 2020; Song, 2007). For example, in terms of jo, ujo is known to express majestic feelings, pyeong-jo is used to convey peacefulness or joyfulness, and gyemyeon-jo represents sadness (Lee et al., 2009; Song, 2007). Thus, the relationship between the acoustic features of jangdan associated with jo could be a critical resource for understanding a sanjo virtuoso’s expressivity.

The vast majority of sanjo studies have focused on a form of sanjo that is transcribed rather than performed although a virtuoso’s performance offers a learning source for current performers. Acoustic analysis of sanjo virtuosos’ performances is expected to account for a sanjo virtuoso’s individuality corresponding to the musical components of sanjo. As a first step in observing Kim Juk-pa’s expressivity displayed in the recording of performance released in 1985, we addressed the following questions:

Would the melody’s (corresponding to rhythmic pattern, jangdan) tempo within each jo differentiate across the five types of jo?

Would the melody’s tempo at the transition of jo differentiate across the five types of jo?

Would the melody’s dynamics within each jo differentiate across the five types of jo?

Would the melody’s dynamics at the transition of each jo differentiate across the five types of jo?

Method

Material

The art of sanjo is generally identified by its structural features conveying culturally defined emotions (e.g., sad, grand, joyful; see Howard et al., 2008, for more details) as well as splendid performance techniques. A sanjo virtuoso as a creator organizes some types of jo in their sanjo performance, generating varied forms of sanjo. Modern transcripts of sanjo indicate the use of jo, but musical expressions related to jo are available in performance. Since the creation of sanjo during the late 19th century, there have been many sanjo virtuosos whose sanjo are entitled with their name. Sanjo virtuosos have achieved their status as creator-performers, and in doing so, improvisational performance was critical in generating various forms of sanjo. Many current performers have attempted to assimilate a virtuoso’s sanjo as performance (Kim, 2016).

Virtuoso Kim Juk-pa’s sanjo has achieved great popularity as a core repertoire in traditional music learning. The virtuoso’s sanjo consists of eight rhythmic movements performed from slow to fast tempo, lasting about 60 min. The first movement featuring 100 rhythmic patterns is composed of some types of jo (e.g., ujo, p-jo, g-jo in abbreviations)¹, structural features indicating different meanings of emotion. Howard et al. (2008) executed a thorough text analysis of Kim Juk-pa’s sanjo. Descriptive analysis of the first section is summarized in Table 1 and a few transcript excerpts are presented in Figure 1.

Table 1.

Descriptions of the First Section of Kim Juk-pa’s Sanjo.

Jo (a group of rhythmic cycle, jangdan)	Emotion related to jo	Tonal center (key)	Jangdan (rhythmic cycle)	The number of jangdan in each jo	Time (s)
Ujo	Grand, majestic	A	1–4	15	51.672
		E	5–15		159.922
Ug-jo (mixed of ujo and g-jo)	(Grand, majestic, sad)	A	16–22	17	93.762
		E	23–28		79.070
		A	29–32		55.756
Ujo	Grand, majestic	A	33–34	4	25.575
		G	35–36		29.650
P-jo	Joyful	G	37–39	8	38.677
Pg-jo (mixed with p-jo and g-jo)	(Joyful, Sad)	G	40–44		62.994
G-jo	Sad	G	45–48	56	55.042
		D	49–58		142.582
		G	59–92		483.152
		Bflat	93–95		44.659
		G	96–100		76.685

Note. Abbreviations are used except for ujo as it is. No historic literature of sanjo describes emotions related to the mixed jo, but it is assumed that emotions from each jo may be interchangeably reflected in the mixed jo shown in parentheses.

Figure 1.

Transcript Excerpts of Kim Juk-pa’s Sanjo, Jangdan 43–45 Within g-jo.

Procedure

We converted the entire WAV file of the virtuoso’s sanjo recording released in 1985 to MP3 through a free online converter; the first section, which best reflected the virtuoso’s individuality, was then extracted from the entire performance recording. We segmented the section on the basis of jangdan, rhythmic pattern, creating 100 musical excerpts in GoldWave Digital Audio Editor (https://www.goldwave.com/release.php). We screened for tonal center (key) across all melodies with reference to sanjo literature and quantified acoustic cues, including tempo and dynamics, at critical places of sanjo performance. The virtuoso’s recording was imported into Sonic Visualizer (Cannam et al., 2010) and PRAAT (Boersma & Weenink, 2020) to conduct spectrographic analysis. Tempo variation (bpm) was measured in PRAAT, and intensity (dB) was quantified utilizing Sonic Visualizer across all music excerpts and at the center for places where jo shifts.

Data analysis

The onset of each musical excerpt was manually determined and inter-onset intervals were identified using Sonic Visualizer. We found inter-onset intervals of between 12 ms and 15.813 s using the software, generating a total of 2,163 values. Similarly, we also observed intensity values at intervals of 11 ms utilizing PRAAT, which produced 132,850 values. Following this process, we further studied the values of tempo and dynamics in each melody at the transitions between ujo, ug-jo, p-jo, pg-jo, and g-jo as determined by the virtuoso, using the same software programs.

Results

Tempo

The tempo (bpm) of the melody in each jangdan was observed across jo. Descriptive statistical analysis showed that the tempo values of g-jo, comprising more than half of the entire jangdan (i.e., 57 jangdans), accounted for 57.47% of the total data. The mean tempo by jo was highest in g-jo-sadness; its lowest was found in ujo. Regarding the variance of tempo, the highest was in g-jo and the lowest in p-jo (Table 2). Significant differences in tempo were found across jo (p < .001 and $η_{p}^{2} = . 014$ ), indicating the small effect size of jo (Table 3). Furthermore, the post hoc comparisons indicated a significant difference in the groups between ujo and g-jo (Table 4).

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics of Tempo (bpm) Across Jo.

Jo-emotion	n	M	SD	Minimum	Maximum
Ujo-(grand, majestic)	378	94.29	26.52	64.60	198.77
P-jo-joyful, peaceful	61	98.51	9.80	78.30	117.45
G-jo-sad	1,241	102.28	27.82	61.52	178.21
Ug-jo-(grand, majestic, sad)	377	99.02	23.84	61.52	161.50
Pg-jo-(joyful, sad)	106	96.91	15.66	56.17	126.05
Total	2,163	99.95	26.25	56.17	198.77

Table 3.

One -Way ANOVA for Tempo Across Jo.

	SS	df	MS	F	p	$η_{p}^{2}$
Between groups	20,273.913	4	5,068.478	7.441	<.001	.014
Within groups	1,469,954.833	2,158	681.165
Total	1,490,228.746	2,162

Table 4.

Comparisons of Jo’s Tempo.

Jo		Mean difference	SE	p	95% confidence interval
Jo		Mean difference	SE	p	Lower bound	Upper bound
U-jo	p-jo	−4.218	3.601	1.000	−14.338	5.9012
	g-jo	−7.989*	1.533	< .001	−12.297	−3.6806
	ug-jo	−4.726	1.900	.129	−10.064	0.6116
	pg-jo	−2.623	2.868	1.000	−10.683	5.4373
P-jo	u-jo	4.218	3.601	1.000	−5.901	14.3370
	g-jo	−3.771	3.423	1.000	−13.389	5.8468
	ug-jo	−0.508	3.602	1.000	−10.630	9.6125
	pg-jo	1.595	4.194	1.000	−10.191	13.3809
G-jo	u-jo	7.989*	1.533	< .001	3.681	12.2973
	p-jo	3.771	3.423	1.000	−5.847	13.3888
	ug-jo	3.263	1.535	.336	−1.050	7.5753
	pg-jo	5.366	2.641	.423	−2.055	12.787
Ug-jo	u-jo	4.726	1.900	.129	−0.612	10.064
	p-jo	0.508	3.602	1.000	−9.613	10.630
	g-jo	−3.263	1.535	.336	−7.575	1.050
	pg-jo	2.104	2.869	1.000	−5.959	10.166
Pg-jo	u-jo	2.623	2.868	1.000	−5.437	10.683
	p-jo	−1.595	4.194	1.000	−13.381	10.191
	g-jo	−5.366	2.641	.423	−12.787	2.055
	ug-jo	−2.104	2.869	1.000	−10.166	5.959

p < .05.

The tempo of consecutive melodies at the center of the place where jo shifts was found to be significantly different (p < .05) and showed large effects (Table 5). A comparison of acoustic cues of melodies across jangdan was made at places in which jo changes; however, significant differences were not found in the transition to ujo and g-jo (p < .05; Table 6).

Table 5.

Tempo (bpm) Comparison of Melodies at the Center of the Closing Jangdan in Each Jo.

Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	ANOVA
Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	F	p	$η_{p}^{2}$
Ujo to ug-jo					307.824	<.001	.910
14	Ujo	18	73.30	4.19
15	Ujo	18	79.51	5.27
16	Ug-jo	28	135.07	13.10
Ug-jo to ujo					5.548	.006	.163
31	Ug-jo	22	93.54	11.38
32	Ug-jo	21	86.78	6.24
33	Ujo	17	85.27	5.99
Ujo to p-jo					33.841	<.001	.514
35	Ujo	28	119.13	21.70
36	Ujo	19	83.64	4.95
37	P-jo	20	99.82	5.89
Pjo to pg-jo					23.010	<.001	.430
38	P-jo	19	92.37	2.915
39	P-jo	22	102.61	13.50
40	Pg-jo	23	113.04	9.37
Pg-jo to g-jo					26.969	<.001	.504
43	Pg-jo	18	76.47	6.35
44	Pg-jo	21	88.13	5.82
45	G-jo	17	86.90	2.90

Note. The closing jangdan number of each jo is summarized with numbers such as 15, 32, 36, 39, and 44. Tempo of melody in jangdan at the end of each jo was compared with the tempo of the previous melodies in that jangdan. ANOVA = analysis of variance.

Table 6.

Tempo (bpm) Comparison of Melodies in Jangdan at Places Where Jo Shifts.

Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	t-test
Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	t	df	p
Ujo to ug-jo
15	Ujo	18	79.51	5.27	−17.07	44	<.001
16	Ug-jo	28	135.07	13.1
Ug-jo to ujo
32	Ug-jo	21	86.78	6.24	0.757	36	.454
33	Ujo	17	85.27	5.99
Ujo to p-jo
36	Ujo	19	83.64	4.95	−9.267	37	<.001
37	p-jo	20	99.82	5.89
P-jo to pg-jo
39	P-jo	22	102.61	13.5	−3.021	43	.004
40	Pg-jo	23	113.04	9.37
Pg-jo to g-jo
44	Pg-jo	21	88.13	5.82	0.791	36	.434
45	G-jo	17	86.9	2.9

We found that 55.99% of the total number of intensity values were generated from g-jo, 18.66% from ujo, and 2.71% from p-jo. The highest mean of intensity (dB) was found in pg-jo and the lowest in ug-jo. Standard deviation data indicated that the variance of intensity (dB) was the highest in ug-jo and the lowest in ujo (Table 7). Significant differences in intensity were found between different groups of jo, p < .05, although partial eta squared, $η_{p}^{2} = . 006$ , indicated a small effect size (Table 8). A post hoc analysis showed significant differences in intensity among multiple groups of jo, but this was not applicable to p-jo and pg-jo.

Table 7.

Descriptive Analysis of Intensity (dB) of Melodies in Jangdan Across Jo.

Jo	N	M	SD	Minimum	Maximum
Ujo-majestic	24,784	50.81	9.98	23.73	84.90
Pjo-joyful	3595	51.49	10.46	25.70	80.09
Gjo-sad	74,387	49.50	10.48	23.16	84.95
Ug-jo-(grand, majestic, sad)	23,466	48.96	10.95	24.80	84.40
Pg-jo-(joyful, sad)	6,618	51.84	10.62	24.70	82.14
Total	132,850	49.82	10.51	23.16	84.95

Table 8.

One-Way ANOVA for Intensity (dB) Across Jo.

	SS	df	MS	F	p	$η_{p}^{2}$
Between groups	85,913.98	4	21,478.49	195.62	<.001	.006
Within groups	14,586,337.90	132,845	109.80
Total	14,672,251.87	132,849

Intensity (dB) values of melodies in jangdan were significantly different when the value of the previous jangdan was compared with pre- or post-melodies in the current jangdan, p < .05, with small effects of jo transition (Table 9). A t-test analysis also indicated significant differences in intensity (dB) across all places, p < .05, where jo changes, except at the transition from p-jo to pg-jo (Table 10).

Table 9.

Intensity (dB) Comparisons of Melodies at the Center of the Closing Jangdan in Each Jo.

Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	ANOVA
Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	F	p	$η_{p}^{2}$
Ujo to Ug-jo					310.24	< .001	.136
14	Ujo	1,394	53.79	7.98
15	Ujo	1,341	50.36	8.97
16	Ug-jo	1,203	45.16	9.61
Ug-jo to ujo					174.58	< .001	.080
31	Ug-jo	1,404	47.62	10.93
32	Ug-jo	1,404	52.28	10.39
33	Ujo	1,191	55.01	9.18
Ujo to p-jo					75.84	< .001	.037
35	Ujo	1,419	54.92	8.48
36	Ujo	1,341	52.95	9.18
37	P-jo	1,152	50.08	12.19
P-jo to Pg-jo					26.258	< .001	.014
38	P-jo	1,169	53.56	9.78
39	P-jo	1,274	50.87	9.00
40	Pg-jo	1,203	50.84	12.50
Pg-jo to g-jo					87.14	< .001	.042
43	Pg-jo	1,404	51.57	10.09
44	Pg-jo	1,404	55.74	8.82
45	g-jo	1,140	51.37	10.24

Table 10.

Intensity (dB) Comparisons of Melodies in Jangdan at Places Where Jo Shifts.

Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	t-test
Jangdan number	Jo	N	M	SD	t	df	p
Ujo to Ug-jo					14.077	2,464.406	< .001
15	Ujo	1,341	50.36	8.97
16	Ug-jo	1,203	45.16	9.61
Ug-jo to Ujo					−7.101	2,588.779	< .001
32	Ug-jo	1,404	52.28	10.39
33	Ujo	1,191	55.01	9.18
Ujo to p-jo					6.561	2,115.125	<.001
36	Ujo	1,341	52.95	9.18
37	P-jo	1,152	50.08	12.19
P-jo to Pg-jo					0.056	2,175.064	.956
39	P-jo	1,274	50.87	9.00
40	Pg-jo	1,203	50.84	12.50
Pg-jo to g-jo					11.371	2,258.867	<.001
44	Pg-jo	1,404	55.74	8.82
45	G-jo	1,140	51.37	10.24

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate a virtuoso’s expressivity by focusing on acoustic parameters of sanjo, such as tempo and intensity of melodies in jangdan as related to jo. Since jo, meaning emotion or mood, is an essential feature of sanjo, it is critical to investigate acoustic cues associated with jo, particularly significant places in performance, to assess a virtuoso’s individuality. As no previous study has evinced a sanjo virtuoso’s individuality related to jo’s transition, this study was the first to target acoustic cues related to melodies. Whereas there should be a substantial range of acoustic parameters when regarding gayageum as a plucking instrument, the instrument’s acoustic parameters should be a part of Kim Juk-pa’s individuality as her sanjo techniques remain consistent across periods. Therefore, this supports the rationale for observing Kim Juk-pa’s individuality, including plucking, as well as the left-hand-related techniques, including vibrato in this study.

As discussed by Leech-Wilkinson (2009), a performer’s style is delineated by their musical shaping. Hence, we aimed to investigate how Kim Juk-pa shaped sanjo-specific features, possibly to reveal her sanjo’s identity. As a first step, we focused on tempo and intensity across jangdan. As a follow-up, the investigation of the virtuoso through different acoustic cues, including vibrato, pitch bending, and tone clustering, is expected to evince her individuality more in detail across recordings of Kim Juk-pa’s sanjo performance.

Performance style is described as a pattern shaped by a performer’s conceptualization of the music repertoire at large. A previous study suggested that performance timing patterns or dynamics under varied levels of music structure relate to the overall characteristics of music (Spiro et al., 2010). In this study, we observed tempo and dynamics variations at the unit of jangdan related to five types of jo and found that the virtuoso’s performance patterns of jo shifted accordingly. Tempo and dynamic shaping associated with the jo shift (e.g., tempo changes surrounding the last melody of each jo) was noticeable, implying that each component plays a role in revealing her individuality. Given that a jo is composed of multiple jangdans, the virtuoso’s attempt to shape tempo and dynamics at the end of jo can also be understood as the sectionalization or structuring of jo, a phenomenon that is seen in other forms of performance across music repertoires (Rink et al., 2011). These findings suggest that the virtuoso may intentionally vary tempo more than dynamics to shape transitional acoustic features in terms of jo. However, as these findings were limited to the study of a 1985 recording, more investigations of Kim Juk-pa’s performances are needed to generalize them. Further investigations could address questions such as (a) would Kim Juk-pa’s approach to jo transitions be able to be identified across her recordings? And (b) do other sanjo virtuosos utilize tempo and dynamics for shaping jo transition similarly or differently? Thus, more studies are warranted to further reveal Kim Juk-pa’s expressivity, as well as the characteristics of the sanjo performances of virtuosos overall.

Studies on emotional performance have given significant attention to their communicative power. For example, many studies have relied on emotional expressivity whether it be successfully decoded by listeners (Gabrielsson, 1999; Juslin, 2000) or the use of cultural cues available in emotional communication (Argstatter, 2016; Balkwill & Thompson, 1999). Theoretically, this study focused mainly on the ecological validity of emotional expressivity encoded by performers: the manipulation of acoustic parameters that are attempted by performers (Juslin & Laukka, 2000). As suggested (Timmers, 2007), this study facilitates the adaptation of a framework that analyzes acoustic cues from performance recordings for a better understanding of performers’ emotional expressivity with reference to features of their music repertoire (e.g., emotionally relevant clues or structural aspects). This is also an attempt to bring greater attention into how performers reflect their perceived emotions into expressivity.

Regarding the relationship between jo and the acoustic parameters at the unit of jangdan, the mean tempo of g-jo, indicating sadness, was the highest, while ujo, meaning majesty, was the lowest. Temporal variation was also the highest in g-jo. Intensity was the highest value in p-jo and the lowest in ujo. The virtuoso’s approach to g-jo, which accounted for the largest part of sanjo, was notable in that the temporal variation was the most flexible compared with other jo. These findings suggest that Kim Juk-pa seems to undertake tempo fluctuation mostly in terms of shaping g-jo as opposed to ujo or p-jo. Interestingly, dynamics were most obvious in the expression of p-jo, although a caution should be taken given that the total length of p-jo is shorter than g-jo or ujo. It is presumed that this result can be attributed to Kim Juk-pa’s strategic use of acoustic cues that interplay with the emotional meanings of jo.

The emotional meanings imbued in jo may not be consistent with emotions that have been widely examined in previous studies, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and tenderness (see the analysis of emotional performances, Juslin & Laukka, 2003). Although we relied on culturally defined emotions regarding jo, future investigations could possibly address the intricacy of the emotional meanings interplaying with listeners’ perspectives on sanjo virtuosos’ emotional expressivity. Most importantly, current performers are expected to refer to these findings to learn about Kim Juk-pa’s performance style, particularly concerning shaping their own expressions across jo. As more findings are accumulated, the sources for learning individualized sanjo will become more sophisticated and detailed.

A dictionary definition of virtuoso is one with great technical skills or personal style in the arts (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Studies on virtuosos have examined both this meaning and instrumental virtuosity as mechanical reproduction, creativity, or originality (Leech-Wilkinson, 2018). The limits of virtuosos may be inconsistent over centuries, and the meaning of the terms needs to be grounded in the context of time periods, culture, music, performer, and so on, due to its complexity (Stachó & Deliège, 2018). The findings of this study may fill a missing gap in studies that observe virtuosos’ performance styles through acoustic cue analysis in the context of traditional music, proposing a methodological approach to analyzing virtuoso’s expressivity.

Investigation of a sanjo virtuoso’s performance can be applicable to a broader focus on the analysis of a performer’s individuality as well as emotional expressivity, due to its specific factors, including emotion-related expressivity achieved by a virtuoso. As an example, this study suggests that a music-specific feature could be useful based on the degree to which it integrates research targets in studying music performances.

Sanjo learning has been structured in the higher music education system in South Korea, and this phenomenon is not unrelated to the established recognition of sanjo virtuosos. Nevertheless, although text analysis of sanjo helped performers understand it, the findings were not as delicate as those from analyzing acoustic parameters at the moment of performance as a script (Cook, 2013). Based on this, there are studies supporting follow-ups regarding a virtuoso’s individuality from a variety of perspectives: performers’ body movements being communicative to music structural features (Thompson & Luck, 2012), the mechanism of performers’ movements effectively interplaying with certain emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness) more than others (e.g., fear; Dahl & Friberg, 2007), and the principle of entrainment referring to musical synchronization and coordination related to music genre–specific features (Clayton et al., 2019). We expect that the analysis of sanjo performance through the lens of interdisciplinary perspectives could be expanded to observe the relationship between jo-related ornamentations and movements. The essence of a sanjo virtuoso’s performance provides sources for current professional performers creating sanjo. A series of sanjo studies containing multiple virtuosos and performance recordings is therefore worth establishing due to its contribution to the study of music performance, which could enrich both the recognition of virtuosos and the creation of music genres across culture.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclose receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF-2019S1A5A2A01034848).

ORCID iD

You Jin Kim

Notes

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