Putting practice under the microscope: The perceived uses and limitations of slow instrumental music practice

Managing information load

The reported use of slow practice to reduce or increase information load was the second most commonly perceived function of slow practice (Table 2). This theme highlights the role of cognitive load theory in explaining how slow practice may support learning. For some, the slow practice was perceived as making playing easier or was applied to difficult or complex material to make playing more accessible. For example, the slow tempo was used to make “complex rhythms” or “challenging key signatures” (Table 3) more manageable. This implies a reduction of extrinsic CL through altering the manner (tempo) in which the task was carried out. Furthermore, as musical material became “more familiar” (Table 3), the learner was able to quicken the tempo, implying that as information moved from working memory to long-term memory, slow practice became less necessary. Respondents further reported using slow practice to avoid mistakes. They perceived errors to be harmful to learning (Table 3), or expressed fears that mistakes would become “chronic,” “habit,” or “programmed” into their playing. This supports the notion that slow practice is used to reduce extrinsic CL as a means of error avoidance. These perspectives are in line with theories of errorless learning which is said to support implicit learning processes (Wong & Lim, 2019), performance under pressure (Maxwell et al., 2001), and learner motivation (Pickard, 2021).

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Table 3.

Thematic Substructure for Managing Information Load.

Subtheme Level 1	Subtheme Level 2	Example
Reducing extrinsic CL	Reducing difficulty	“Slowing the music down allows me to play difficult passages with complex rhythms or challenging key signatures. I then speed up once I am more familiar with the piece” (amateur, classical, violinist).
	Avoiding errors	“I never want to learn a mistake so I always practice slowly . . . Playing at performance tempo before you are ready only makes the mistakes permanent” (professional, classical, violinist).
Stimulating germane CL	Detail/holistic focus	“I use slow practice in order to put everything under a microscope and observe what I am doing” (student, classical, violinist).“(I use slow practice) to improve the connection between intellect, emotion, and muscle memory” (professional, classical, violinist).
	Accuracy focus	“(I use slow practice) to make sure I’m actually hearing each note and each chord properly. To make sure I’m using the right technique so the piece doesn’t fall apart when doing fast practice” (teacher, classical, pianist).

Note. CL: cognitive load.

In addition, the slow practice was viewed as enabling learners to process more details or to focus on several musical elements as they played (Table 3). Others similarly reported that they were able to focus more deeply on accuracy while practicing slowly, in line with previous findings that slow practice was used to achieve accuracy goals (Nielsen, 2001). This approach to learning appears to indicate an increase in germane CL, stimulating schema-construction in long-term memory. It appears then, that learners may adapt the effects of slow practice on CL to their individual needs.

Building a foundation for motor learning

This theme exemplifies using slow practice to build and refine motor skills and was the most commonly mentioned function of slow practice. This theme was reported in terms of improving automaticity, familiarizing with the music generally, laying technical foundations for developing fast playing, and developing motor skills such as coordination, fluency, and stamina (Table 4). Using slow practice to get familiar with new material is in line with previous qualitative findings (Chaffin et al., 2003). Furthermore, respondents generally viewed slow practice as “essential,” “necessary,” and “the only way” to build their skills and expand their repertoire. This highlights the foundational nature of slow practice. The development of automaticity through slow practice was seen as important for building fast playing skills, with some respondents believing “you can’t play something fast if you can’t play it slow” (teacher, classical, pianist). This exemplifies a use for slow practice early in learning, setting the basis for motoric memory which should later enable fast playing. The process of building motoric memory again implies construction of schemas, and therefore is consistent with the idea that slow practice can stimulate germane cognitive processes. This provides insight into how slow practice may support fast skills despite possible changes to motor organization between slow and fast tempi (e.g., Dahl et al., 2011).

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Table 4.

Thematic Substructure for Building a Foundation for Motor Learning.

Subtheme Level 1	Example
Automaticity	“I also use slow practice to build towards acquiring speed, because I can’t play it fast until my fingers have memorised what they have to do” (teacher, classical, cellist).
Familiarizing	“(I use slow practice) to learn the notes and get to know the rhythm and shape of the music” (amateur, classical, violinist)
Technical foundations	“It’s the only way to cement technique” (amateur, classical, bassoonist).
Motor control	“For me, practising slowly has to do with muscle movement and technique” (amateur, pop/rock/blues, guitarist)“(I use slow practice) to hone coordination between right and left hands” (amateur, folk music, violinist).

Regulating states

This theme captures the use of slow practice to control aspects of emotional, perceptual, or mental states and was the least commonly reported function of slow practice. In terms of emotion, respondents reported that slow practice gave them feelings of ease and control while playing (Table 5). It is possible that these emotions could be brought about by reduced extrinsic CL. Furthermore, one respondent noted that practising “slowly and mindfully” (teacher, classical, clarinetist) boosted confidence when performing. Others noted that practising slowly promoted enjoyment and relaxation, in line with findings that slow movement is relaxing (Niksirat et al., 2017). Experiencing these positive emotional states during practice may support motivation to learn and well-being (Lee et al., 2017).

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Table 5.

Thematic Substructure for Regulating States.

Subtheme Level 1	Subtheme Level 2	Example
Emotional	Feelings of ease/control	“(My goal during slow practice is) developing a feeling of ease and control, with focused expression, and bringing that feeling into performance tempo” (professional, classical, bass trombonist).
	Feelings of pleasure/relaxation	“Everything is simply easier and more enjoyable at a slower pace!!” (professional, classical, harpist).
Mental	Concentration/ mindfulness	“I’m trying to optimise my effort in order to be able to achieve the state of bliss, to be anchored in the present moment, kind of like meditation” (professional, classical, violinist).
	Conscious cognition	“Sometimes I use slow practising for memorisation, because you can’t simply rely on muscle memory and have to actively engage with what you are playing” (student, classical, pianist).
Perceptual	–	“Playing the music slows (sic) allows me to hear the individual phrases and bring out the music within the music” (professional, folk music, bagpipe player).

Closely connected to these emotional themes were reported changes to mental states involving concentration and mindfulness (Table 5). One respondent’s description of effort optimization, presence in the moment and experiencing “bliss” (Table 5), may refer to a state of flow. Indeed, conceptions of mindfulness and flow share overlapping characteristics and are connected to aspects of focus and concentration (Lambert & Csikszentmihalyi, 2020). This suggests that slow practice might be able to encourage flow states by allowing the learner to optimize their skill/challenge balance through manipulation of extrinsic cognitive load. Other respondents similarly reported that slow practice allowed them to “pay attention,” “concentrate,” or “focus.” As achieving focus in music practice has been described as essential to learning (Jørgensen & Hallam, 2011), this may be a valuable mechanism through which slow practice supports musical development.

Another subtheme of changes to mental states was using slow practice to encourage conscious cognition (Table 5). Playing slowly was described as allowing the learner to avoid automatic motor processes and engage conscious cognition to solidify musical material in declarative memory (Table 5). This is similar to memorization techniques described by Chaffin et al. (2009). Other comments described how slow practice enabled deep, deliberate practice, gave them time to think while playing, or allowed them to make conscious decisions about playing techniques. One musician reported using slow practice to stimulate creativity when composing, writing that playing slowly helped to “avoid standard ‘licks’ and find something new” (amateur, pop/rock/blues, guitarist). This indicates the use of slow practice to circumnavigate automatic motoric responses. Another respondent used slow practice to freshen their perspective on previously learned music, writing that even when music was learned well, practicing slowly helped “to know better the music, to get a different feeling of it” (professional, pop/rock/blues, bassist). These perspectives are in line with the idea that slowness can be used to go beyond automaticity, update schemas in long-term memory, or change musical interpretation.

The current reported increases in conscious cognition were viewed by respondents as beneficial to their creative practice. However, as bringing conscious attention to body movement has been found to impair motor performance (e.g., Allingham et al., 2021; Duke et al., 2011; Wulf, 2013), it would be an interesting topic for further research to explore whether such negative effects of attentional focus take place during slow practice. It is possible that the act of slowing down allows learners to avoid the performance degradation normally associated with increased conscious attention to movement. Further research on slow practice and attentional focus is needed to shed more light on this topic.

Respondents additionally reported that slow practice enabled regulation of their perceptual state. This was described in terms of developing a new understanding of a musical phrase (Table 5), highlighting how changing tempo can alter perceived expressive musical content. It was also reported that playing slowly could change perceptions of intonation, allowing the learner to hear more precisely, or “perceive individual notes and evaluate their quality separate from their sequence” (amateur, classical, flutist). For some respondents, slow practice additionally heightened perception of movement, allowing them to develop “clearer sensation” and to notice “areas of unnecessary muscle tension” (professional, classical, cellist). This is in line with known uses of slowness to achieve heightened somatic awareness such as in the Feldenkrais method (Clark et al., 2015), and suggests that slow practice might play a role in improving instrument technique through awareness of inefficient muscle use. These comments provide evidence that slow practice is sometimes used to find new ways of perceiving one’s playing, to improve the technique or find a new expressive intention.

Overall, the theme of regulating states indicated that instrumental musicians perceived slow practice as a useful way to regulate emotional, mental, and perceptual states to support learning. One respondent detailed how these three types of regulation may come together to create “a state of mind that is calm and in control and I really listen. It feels good and gets results fast” (teacher, classical, cellist).

Creative and critical problem-solving

This theme encompassed the use of slow practice to solve both technical and expressive-interpretative problems, requiring critical self-assessment (Table 6). The types of problem-solving reported included complex issues such as making decisions about bowing styles and fingering patterns, implying careful thought and experimentation. Working on more basic musical components such as intonation, rhythm, and sound quality was also reported. Slowness may help this kind of work by reducing extrinsic CL and giving the learner more capacity for conscious thinking. Identifying problems during slow practice was also highlighted, indicating that slowness may help to uncover problems not apparent at faster speeds. This is reminiscent of descriptions of slow practice as a magnifying glass, allowing the learner to assess their playing in greater detail. In a similar manner, slow practice appeared to help learners develop an understanding of the musical material and the techniques required. Improved musical understanding was seen as supporting interpretations, allowing the performer to “translate (the music) into a story” (professional, classical, violinist). Improved technical understanding was viewed as contributing to “proper, healthy, sustainable technique” (amateur, classical, cellist). Finally, respondents reported using creative and critical slow practice to achieve expressive-interpretative goals, such as experimenting with different expressive ideas. The extra time afforded by slow playing may help the learner to make performance decisions, whereas changing the tempo might allow the music to be seen in a new light. The slow, analytical work described in this theme is similar to the slow practice described by Chaffin et al. (2003) for solving problems and getting to know the music. This approach to slow practice further indicates that slow practice is not only about reducing extrinsic CL to make work easier, but also may support intense and concentrated practicing.

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Table 6.

Thematic Substructure for Creative and Critical Problem-solving.

Subtheme Level 1	Subtheme Level 2	Example
Technical problems	Problem-solving	“(my slow practice) includes making conscious decisions about where to place the bow on the string and in the frog/middle/tip and the melding of fingers with the bow to ease technical challenges within the musical phrase” (professional, classical cellist).
	Problem identification	“(slow practice) brings out places I am not comfortable” (amateur, classical, pianist).
Developing understanding	Musical material	“I use slow practice to unpick and understand harmonic structure” (teacher, classical, saxophonist).
	Technique	“(I use slow practice) to break down and analyse the motion of each arm/hand/finger” (professional, classical, violist).
Developing expression/ Interpretation	–	“(I use slow practice to) decide on how it feels to play it and where I should put emphasis” (professional, folk music, violinist)

Malfunctions of slow practice

The perceived ways in which slow practice could malfunction were categorized as either technical-practical or emotional-cognitive (Table 7). The first technical-practical malfunction was the way in which slow practice could alter the technical requirements of the music. This was perceived as inefficient. For example, string players reported that certain bow techniques would not work at slow speeds, and that the left-hand technique would change depending on the tempo. Woodwind and brass players wrote that playing too slowly could make breath control unnecessarily difficult. Others noted that fast practice would eventually be required to learn fast playing technique, and that slow practice “doesn’t give you the speed and dexterity required” (amateur, pop/rock/blues, bassist). These views support motor skills research which has shown that slow movement sometimes creates extra difficulty (Van Der Wel et al., 2009), and that motor system organization can change depending on the speed of action execution (Dahl et al., 2011; Goebl & Palmer, 2008; Winold et al., 1994). Due to these changes in instrument technique, some respondents noted that they could not realize their expressive intentions at slow tempi. Four musicians (three jazz, one classical) noted that the intended tempo was essential for capturing the “swing” or “groove” of a piece. To these respondents, practicing slowly removed the music from its original context, making it difficult to express the music authentically. Changing musical context through tempo alteration is the same mechanism previously discussed as allowing learners to gain new perspectives. However, this mechanism is viewed here as unhelpful in determining final performance expressions. The utility of this aspect of slow practice may thus depend on the perspective of the learner.

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Table 7.

Thematic Substructure for Malfunctions of Slow Practice and Strategic Pitfalls.

Subtheme Level 1	Subtheme Level 2	Example
Malfunctions of slow practice
Technical-practical malfunctions	Altering technique	“Often slow practice changes technique—this is undesirable as it means I’m learning to play a phrase in two (or more) ways” (teacher, classical, pianist).
	Altering expression	“I find it difficult to play correct articulations, dynamics, phrasing, or other factors that express emotional content at a slow tempo . . . Partially because they sound wrong and out of context” (amateur, pop/rock/blues, guitarist).
Emotional-cognitive malfunctions	Getting stuck	“Students get stuck at slow tempos. Slow practice can be conflated with never making mistakes. Making then correcting mistakes is possibly more important than slow practice” (teacher, folk music, guitarist).
	Lack of performance skills	“It is necessary to practice at full speed to overcome any nerves by reassuring yourself you are capable of performing at speed” (amateur, classical, violinist).
	Negative emotions	“(a limitation of slow practice is) Boredom! Do it too much and you will skip practice because it’s so boring” (amateur, classical, bassoonist).
Strategic pitfalls
Practicing too slowly	–	“Practice must be slow enough to allow learning but not so slow as to be too easy” (professional, classical, cellist).
Only using slow practice	–	“You can’t expect to run fast in a race if you’ve only practiced at walking speed. . .The body needs to warm up and train progressively in order to complete difficult tasks” (professional, classical, harpist).

The second subtheme of malfunctions of slow practice encompassed potential negative impacts of slow practice on an emotional-cognitive level. One problem was the possibility of “getting stuck” in a slow tempo or a slow way of thinking. For example, a folk guitar teacher felt that students who always practice slowly may come to believe that they should always avoid mistakes (Table 7). This would mean that they are unable to progress to faster tempi; hence, they become “stuck” at slow tempi. This perspective is reflected in pedagogical ideas promoting the utility of making mistakes while practicing (Kruse-Weber & Parncutt, 2014). In this view, the slow errorless learning previously discussed is seen as lacking in learning opportunities, creating overcautious students. Others expressed similar sentiments, highlighting the need to learn how to “control your mind in a fast tempo” (professional, classical, pianist). This indicates differing cognitive skills necessary for slow and fast playing. Similarly, some respondents felt that slow practice would not adequately support performance skills, as they required expansion of their comfort zone into fast playing to feel confident.

Last, some respondents experienced negative emotions during slow practice, reporting becoming bored, impatient, or losing concentration. This highlights individual differences in optimal practicing styles. Although some may find slow practice focusing and relaxing, others may feel the need to play fast to feel inspired. This is in line with previous findings that factors such as gender, expertise, musical genre, or musical instrument played may influence aspects of music practice (Hallam et al., 2012, 2017, 2020).

Strategic pitfalls

We identified two main strategic pitfalls of slow practice described by respondents: practicing too slowly and only using slow practice (Table 7). When reporting practice that was too slow, respondents referred to previously discussed malfunctions of slow practice. For example, when practicing too slow “breathing becomes impossible” (amateur, classical, bassoonist), indicating an impractical change to the instrument technique (in line with Van Der Wel et al., 2009). Another concern was that slow practice “would take away the musical expression” (amateur, classical, bassoonist), implying that the music had been removed from its authentic context. Concerns about practice being “too easy” (Table 7), may refer to the importance of finding an optimal skill/challenge balance, previously discussed in terms of flow and cultivating positive emotional states (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Further could explore if there exists a general rule for finding the optimal practice tempo to support learning. The second strategic pitfall was using only slow practice, described as the need for a balance of slow and fast work (Table 7). Others similarly described how slow practice was “only part of a toolbox of techniques” (amateur, classical, cellist). Indeed, it seems likely that many of the perceived malfunctions of slow practice could be avoided by the inclusion of both slow and fast playing.