Does classical versus pop music influence coffee purchase likelihood?

Abstract

Coffee is a tremendously popular beverage throughout the world. According to recent studies, consumption of this caffeinated drink is influenced, inter alia, by variables related to store atmosphere, including background music. Findings in this regard, however, have been rather limited and ambiguous, and raise the question of whether music style, specifically classical versus pop, influences coffee purchase likelihood. In four studies, the authors sought to address this question, finding a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop). In other words, an increase in music arousal level appears to enhance coffee purchase likelihood. The results, thereby, support the music congruity hypothesis. The article concludes with a discussion of research and managerial implications as well as directions for future research.

Keywords

coffee music arousal level purchase likelihood

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world. According to the International Coffee Organization, as of January 2022, approximately 168.88 million bags of coffee are produced, and 167.68 million bags are consumed annually. In general, people tend to drink coffee for rather functional reasons: arousal, combatting fatigue, staying awake, improving work and learning performance, enhancing mental focus, and so on (Hsu & Hung, 2005; Labbe et al., 2015; Samoggia et al., 2020; Spinelli et al., 2017). Furthermore, coffee consumption tends to facilitate social interaction, to instill a deeper sense of connection with social environments, and to create moments of community and sharing with family, friends, and colleagues (Ágoston et al., 2018; Hsu & Hung, 2005; Lanfranchi et al., 2016).

Recent studies have shown that coffee drinking is influenced by an array of economic, sociodemographic, personal preference, and contextual factors (for reviews, see Grigg, 2002; Samoggia & Riedel, 2018) such as store atmosphere, including background music (for a review, see Spence & Carvalho, 2020). However, the results of the limited studies that have examined the influence of background music and music style on coffee purchase likelihood have been ambiguous. For instance, while North et al. (2003) found that classical music gave rise to greater spending on coffee than pop or no music, in an earlier study by North and Hargreaves (1998), no significant differences were found between music conditions with respect to coffee spending. These inconsistencies may be ascribable to variables such as customers’ musical preferences or perception of the store atmosphere, or features of the musical pieces played, such as tempo and volume, which have been found to influence consumer behavior (e.g., Biswas et al., 2019; Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002; Knoeferle et al., 2017; McCarron & Tierney, 1989; Milliman, 1982, 1986; Smith & Curnow, 1966; Spence et al., 2019). Moreover, inconsistencies regarding the influence of music style on coffee purchase likelihood might be linked to the arousal level of the music pieces played during North and Hargreaves’ (1998; North et al., 2003) experiments as well. As aforementioned, people tend to drink coffee for functional reasons, such as arousal. In other words, coffee drinking often is associated with high arousal levels (e.g., Chan & Maglio, 2019). However, North and Hargreaves’ (1998; North et al., 2003) studies do not provide enough information to properly examine these alternative explanations.

The present study, accordingly, attempts to fill this gap by investigating whether and to what extent music style or music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood. Specifically, it explores (a) whether and to what extent classical versus pop music give rise to greater coffee purchase likelihood; (b) whether and to what extent music arousal level increases coffee purchase likelihood; and (c) whether and to what extent interaction between music style and music arousal influences coffee purchase likelihood. Its importance stems in part from the limited studies that have examined the effect of music in a coffee shop environment to date (e.g., Jeon et al., 2016). To our knowledge, no prior study has investigated the specific research questions posed here.

Theoretical background

Music and consumer behavior: a brief review

A great deal of research has studied the impact of music on consumer behavior (for a review, see Montoro-Pons et al., 2021). The following list includes some of the key findings of potential relevance to the current work:

(a) Classical music is used frequently in marketing situations (Cameron et al., 2003; Kellaris & Rice, 1993);

(b) Classical music elicits expectations of higher service and merchandise quality (Baker et al., 1994; DeLuca et al., 2019; Morrison, 2001; Morrison & Beverland, 2003; Spence, 2017; Spence et al., 2013, 2019; Sweeney & Wyber, 2002);

(c) Classical music appears to encourage customers to spend in general more money on some food and beverage items than pop music or no music at all (Areni & Kim, 1993; North et al., 2003);

(d) Classical music appears to increase preference for healthy and indulgent sweet foods (Motoki et al., 2022) and induce a pleasant perception of food (Fiegel et al., 2014).

(e) Slow (Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002; Milliman, 1982, 1986) and soft (Sullivan, 2002) music increases customer spending on some food and beverage items;

(f) Lower volume results in subjects staying marginally longer in a store (Biswas et al., 2019; Garlin & Owen, 2006; Smith & Curnow, 1966; Sullivan, 2002); and

(g) Reducing coffee machine sound loudness and sharpness, as well as increasing the “sizzling,” “crackling,” “dripping,” and “even” components of the coffee machine leads to a higher rating of coffee taste than higher-pitched sounds and attributes such as “rattling,” “high frequency,” “hard,” “loud,” and “powerful” (Knöferle, 2012).

Together, the results encapsulated earlier seem to support the postulation that classical music, in general, would tend to increase consumer spending on food and beverages, including coffee, in dining areas.

The musical congruity hypothesis

Prior research suggests that musical congruity with elements such as product, message, and store environment has the potential to influence consumer attitudes, message reception, product choice, perceived time, and sales volume (e.g., Beverland et al., 2006; Bruner, 1990; Demoulin, 2011; Kantono et al., 2016; Kellaris et al., 1993; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Muniz et al., 2017; Oakes, 2007; Spangenberg et al., 2005; Vida et al., 2007; Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993; Yeoh & North, 2009, 2010; Zellner et al., 2017). According to the musical congruity hypothesis, music activates relevant related knowledge structures that prime consumers’ beliefs about a product in such a way that they are more disposed to buy a product that fits the music played (e.g., Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Areni & Kim, 1993; Wilson, 2003).

In line with the musical congruity hypothesis, research indicates that the style of music played in a store, bar, or restaurant may influence beverage choices. North et al. (1997, 1999), for instance, found that French music increased consumers’ propensity to select French wines, while German music enhanced their likelihood of choosing German ones. Jacob (2006), for her part, found that drinking songs (i.e., songs referring to good food and alcohol sung on festive occasions) appeared to increase the length of time customers stayed and the average amount of alcohol they consumed in bars. Areni and Kim (1993), moreover, have shown that classical music tends to induce customers to buy more expensive wines, arguing that purchasing expensive wines fits the comparatively sophisticated and upmarket stereotype associated with classical music.

Overall, the musical congruity hypothesis supports a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music genre. High-arousal music tends to activate related knowledge structures concerning it, which in turn primes the selection of a product associated with high arousal, such as coffee. This proposition is supported by previous findings indicating that high-arousal music influences behavior, for example, increases activity (e.g., McElrea & Standing, 1992; Milliman, 1982, 1986; Roballey et al., 1985; Smith & Curnow, 1966). Moreover, it has been shown that coffee, in general, is consumed more often by younger adults than older ones (Grigg, 2002), who are considered less physically active. In other words, according to the musical congruity hypothesis, high-arousal background music would tend to enhance coffee purchase likelihood because it fits the music in question.

The current research

In sum, the literature supports two contradictory hypotheses regarding the influence of classical music on coffee purchase likelihood. On one hand, classical music seems to encourage customers to spend more money on some food and beverage items. On the other hand, according to the music congruity hypothesis, the influence of music, including classical music, on coffee purchase likelihood depends on its arousal level and not the music style itself. The present study, accordingly, endeavored to examine whether and to what extent music style or music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood. In four studies detailed subsequently, we examine this research question.

Study 1

The overriding objective of Study 1 was to examine whether and to what extent musical style (classical music vs. pop music) affects coffee purchase likelihood.

Method

Design

Study 1 aimed to compare self-report measures regarding coffee purchase likelihood and arousal level, of two experiment groups: classical and pop music conditions. Respondents completed an online survey on the MTurk platform in exchange for financial compensation. Participants gave their informed written consent to participate in the study. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of two conditions: classical versus pop music.

Procedure

In Study 1, two versions of the third movement (Rondo) of Muzio Clementi’s Sonatina for Piano Op. 36, No. 5 were used for the classical condition (the original version of the piece, played by the pianist Yuja Wang BPM = 87; “classical condition”), and for the pop condition, a pop version of this piece, the song “A Groovy Kind of Love” by Phil Collins (BPM = 90; “pop condition”). Both musical pieces were approximately 2 min in length. The similarity of the two pieces in terms of their musical motifs was confirmed by three judges with a musical background. In other words, two music pieces, similar with respect to their musical motifs and tempo, but different in style—“classical” versus “pop”—were used in Study 1.

After listening to the music stimuli, respondents were asked to imagine themselves eating breakfast at Starbucks. Participants then rated how likely they would be to drink coffee (1 = not likely at all, 7 = highly likely). Starbucks is one of the largest and most well-known coffeehouse chains in the world. It offers beverages such as coffee, tea, hot chocolate, smoothies, iced drinks, and a selection of food products in 33.8 thousand stores worldwide as of 2021 (Lock, 2022). The reference to Starbucks was intended to increase the reliability of the dependent variable measure.

Next, participants were asked to respond to the arousal dimensions of Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) widely used 7-point semantic differential scale (see, for example, Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Kellaris & Kent, 1993; Kellaris & Mantel, 1994; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001). The arousal dimension included responses to six scales (excited-calm, relaxed-simulation, frenzied-sluggish, jittery-dull, wide awake-sleepy, and aroused-unaroused). As the Cronbach alpha level of the above six scales was found to be relatively low (Cronbach α = .54), the items “excited-calm,” “relaxed-simulation,” and “frenzied-sluggish” were omitted. Finally, the average of respondents’ answers to the other three items, following appropriate reverse scoring, was computed (Cronbach α = .84; “arousal level”).

Afterward, to examine the stylistic differences (“classical” vs. “pop”), participants rated their agreement with two statements concerning the music stimuli using a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree): (1) “The music I heard was classical music” and (2) “The music I heard was pop music.” These two statements served as a manipulation check. Participants also reported their gender and age.

Participants

The sample size was determined by an a priori power analysis using G*Power software (Version 3.1.9.7; Faul et al., 2007) with a .05 criterion of statistical significance, power of .90, and effect size (f) of 0.3. These conditions, notably, require a sample size of 382 participants. However, to detect potentially smaller effects, a total of 440 participants (232 male, 208 female, M_age = 39.23, SD_age = 12.80) completed an online survey. No significant differences between male and female participants emerged from the results.

Results

Manipulation check

As presented in Table 1, as predicted, participants in the classical condition agreed with the statement: “The music I heard was classical music” (M_Classical = 5.81 vs. M_Pop = 4.79), t(438) = 7.26, p < .0001. Likewise, respondents in the pop condition concurred with the statement: “The music I heard was pop music” (M_Pop = 4.73 vs. M_Classical = 4.01), t(438) = 3.75, p < .0001. The results, accordingly, validated the music stimuli manipulation.

Table 1.

Results (Study 1).

Variables	M	SD	t
Manipulation check
1. “The music I heard was classical music”
Classical	5.81	1.15	7.26*
Pop	4.79	1.76
2. “The music I heard was pop music”
Classical	4.01	2.16	3.75*
Pop	4.73	1.85
Arousal level
Classical	4.86	1.32	0.09
Pop	4.85	1.36
Coffee purchase likelihood
Music style
Classical	5.67	1.35	0.82
Pop	5.55	1.67
Arousal level
Low	5.28	1.81	4.09*
High	5.87	1.16

p < .0001.

Main dependent measures

As reported in Table 1, in applying a t test to the two music stimuli conditions, no significant differences between participants in the classical (vs. pop) music condition were found regarding the assessment of drinking coffee (M_{Coffee Classical Condition} = 5.67 vs. M_{Coffee Pop Condition} = 5.55), t(438) = 0.82, p = .41). Moreover, no significant differences between participants in the classical (vs. pop) music condition were found with respect to arousal level (M_{Arousal Classical Condition} = 4.86 vs. M_{Arousal Pop Condition} = 4.85), t(438) = 0.09, p = .93.

To examine the musical congruity hypothesis, which supports a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, a bivariate correlation was applied, which indicated a positive correlation between the variables, r(440) = .23, p < .0001. Subsequently, a linear regression was conducted with arousal level as the independent variable, F = 24.09, p < .0001, r² = .05, which yielded a significant positive coefficient of arousal level (β = 0.26, SE = 0.05, Standardized Coefficients β = 0.23), t = 4.91, p < .0001. Moreover, to examine the musical congruity hypothesis, respondents’ arousal level was classified into two categories, low arousal level or high arousal level, depending on whether the arousal level score was lower or higher than the sample median (Mdn_{Arousal Level Study 1} = 5.00). As can be seen in Table 1, in applying a t test to the two arousal level categories, a significant difference between participants in the high arousal level condition versus those in the low arousal level one was found regarding the likelihood of drinking coffee (M_{Low Arousal Level} = 5.28 vs. M_{High Arousal Level} = 5.87, t(438) = 4.09, p < .0001. Furthermore, in order to test interaction between music style and music arousal, a 2 (music style) × 2 (arousal level) between-subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to coffee purchase likelihood. A main effect for arousal level was obtained, F(1, 436) = 19.25, p < .0001, suggesting that arousal level correlates positively with coffee purchase likelihood. The analysis yielded neither a significant main effect for music style, F(1, 436) = 0.51, p = .48, nor a significant interaction between music style and music arousal, F(1, 436) = 0.31, p = .58. In sum, the results strongly supported the hypothesis that music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood.

Discussion

In sum, the results of Study 1 indicated that consumers’ likelihood of drinking coffee was high in general (a score of above 5.55 out of 7 levels), a finding consistent with coffee’s popularity in western countries (e.g., Grigg, 2002). Moreover, the results of Study 1 suggested a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop music), namely, an increase in music arousal level leads to an increase in coffee purchase likelihood. No significant interaction between music style and music arousal was obtained. The findings, accordingly, are consistent with the music congruity hypothesis. However, as aforementioned, no significant differences in terms of music arousal level were found between participants in the classical music condition and those in the pop one. As the music in Study 1 included both classical and pop music pieces (versions of “Clementi”) that, generally speaking, have few if any significant differences in terms of their arousal level, it is possible that the results may have been influenced by such. Study 2, therefore, aimed to test the research hypothesis by using different music stimuli: two music pieces characterized by different arousal levels.

Study 2

Method

Design

Study 2 tested the research hypothesis by the same design as in Study 1, except for using different music stimuli. The music in Study 2 was in a minor (as opposed to major) scale and played by an ensemble (orchestra/band vs. a soloist in Study 1).

Procedure

The procedure for Study 2 was nearly identical to that applied in Study 1, apart from the music stimuli. In Study 2, two versions of Pavane Op. 50 by Gabriel Fauré were used: the classical condition included the version of the piece as performed by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Sir Simon Rattle (BPM = 85; “classical condition”), while the pop condition included a pop version of the same piece, the song “Natural” by the band S Club 7 (BPM = 85; “pop condition”). Both musical pieces were approximately 2 min in length. The similarity of the two pieces in terms of their musical motifs was confirmed by three judges with a musical background.

Participants

Study 2 relied on the same sample size justification as Study 1. Four hundred and thirty-nine respondents (246 male, 193 female, M_age = 37.40, SD_age = 11.16) completed an online survey. No significant differences between male and female participants emerged from the results.

Results

Manipulation check

As predicted, as presented in Table 2, participants in the classical concurred with the statement: “The music I heard was classical music” (M_Classical = 5.90 vs. M_Pop = 4.74), t(437) = 7.42, p < .0001. Likewise, respondents in the pop condition agreed with the statement: “The music I heard was pop music” (M_Pop = 5.56 vs. M_Classical = 4.22), t(437) = 8.12, p < .0001. The results, accordingly, validated the music stimuli manipulation.

Table 2.

Results (Study 2).

Variables	M	SD	t
Manipulation check
1. “The music I heard was classical music”
Classical	5.90	1.15	7.42*
Pop	4.74	2.02
2. “The music I heard was pop music”
Classical	4.22	2.07	8.12*
Pop	5.56	1.31
Arousal level
Classical	4.99	1.16	2.62**
Pop	5.27	1.12
Coffee purchase likelihood
Music style
Classical	5.71	1.20	0.34
Pop	5.75	1.26
Arousal level
Low	5.38	1.46	6.10*
High	6.07	0.82

p < .0001. **p < .01.

Main dependent measures

In line with the results of Study 1, as can be seen in Table 2, in applying a t test to the two music stimuli conditions, no significant differences between participants in the classical music condition and the pop music condition were found regarding coffee purchase likelihood (M_{Coffee Classical Condition} = 5.71 vs. M_{Coffee Pop Condition} = 5.75), t(437) = 0.34, p = .74. However, the arousal level in the pop music condition was higher than that in the classical condition (Cronbach α = .79 for the items: “jittery-dull,” “wide awake-sleepy,” “aroused-unaroused”; M_{Arousal Classical Condition} = 4.99 vs. M_{Arousal Pop Condition} = 5.27), t(437) = 2.62, p < .01. To examine the possibility that music arousal level correlates with coffee purchase likelihood, a bivariate correlation was applied. The results indicated a positive correlation between the variables, r(439) = 0.30, p < .0001. Moreover, a linear regression was conducted with arousal level as the independent variable, F = 42.25, p < .0001, r² = 0.09, which yielded a significant positive coefficient of arousal level (β = 0.32, SE = 0.05, Standardized Coefficients β = 0.30), t = 6.50, p < .0001. Moreover, as in Study 1, respondents’ arousal level was classified into two categories, low arousal level or high arousal level, depending on whether the arousal level score was lower or higher than the median (Mdn_{Arousal Level Study 2} = 5.33). As presented in Table 2, in applying a t test to the two arousal level categories, a significant difference between participants in the high arousal level condition versus those in the low arousal level one was found regarding the purchase likelihood of coffee (M_{Low Arousal Level} = 5.38 vs. M_{High Arousal Level Condition} = 6.07), t(437) = 6.10, p < .0001. Furthermore, to test an interaction between music style and music arousal, a 2 (music style) × 2 (arousal level) between-subjects ANOVA was applied to coffee purchase likelihood. A main effect for arousal level was obtained, F(1, 435) = 37.22, p < .0001, suggesting that arousal level correlates positively with coffee purchase likelihood. The analysis yielded neither a significant main effect for music style, F(1, 435) = 0.01, p = .97, nor a significant interaction between music style and music arousal, F(1, 435) = 1.80, p = .18. Thus, the results of Study 2 appear to be consistent with those of Study 1.

Discussion

The results of Study 2 replicated the results of Study 1 using other music stimuli. Specifically, they suggested a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop), meaning that an increase in music arousal level tends to enhance coffee purchase likelihood. No significant interaction between music style and music arousal was obtained. Study 3 aimed to test the research hypothesis by using a different measure for coffee purchase likelihood.

Study 3

Method

Design

In general, Study 3 used a very similar experimental design as in Studies 1 and 2. However, Study 3 tested the research hypotheses by using a different measure for the dependent variable: an open-ended question relating to consumer purchase intention. Moreover, the music stimuli in Study 3 included all the music pieces used in Studies 1 and 2; that is, the experiment was conducted according to a 2 (music piece: Muzio Clementi’s Sonatina, Pavane Op. 50 by Gabriel Fauré) × 2 (music style: classical, pop music) completely random between-subjects design.

Procedure

In the experiment, respondents were asked to listen to one of the four music stimuli used in Studies 1 and 2. After doing so, they were asked to imagine themselves eating breakfast at Starbucks and to indicate which beverage they would be inclined to order with their meal. This open-ended question pertaining to consumer purchase intention served as a measure for the dependent variable. Respondents’ answers were rated as follows: coffee was scored as “1,” and another beverage as “0.” Thus, a score of “1” reflected a preference for drinking coffee, and “0” a preference for another beverage.

Next, participants were asked to respond to the arousal dimensions of Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) scale (Cronbach α for the six scales = .83). Finally, they reported their gender and age.

Participants

Four hundred and eighty respondents (186 male, 294 female, M_age = 37.18, SD_age = 12.40) completed an online survey. The sample size was determined by an a priori power analysis using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.7; Faul et al., 2007) with a .05 criterion of statistical significance, power of .95, and effect size (f) of 0.2. These conditions, notably, require a sample size of 327 participants. No significant differences between male and female participants emerged from the results.

Results

A chi-square test for coffee purchase likelihood as the dependent variable and music piece or music style (separately) as the independent variable revealed no significant differences regarding coffee purchase likelihood between participants in the classical and pop music conditions, χ²_{music style}(1) = 0.49, p = .48, or between participants in the Clementi and Fauré conditions, χ²_{music piece}(1) = 1.70, p = .19. To examine the interaction between music piece and music style, a logistical regression was conducted on the nominal dependent variable (scores: preference for coffee = 1, preference for another beverage = 0). The independent variables included four dummy variables. Each of them was scored on two levels: “1” reflected the specific music condition, and “0” the other three music conditions. As can be seen in Table 3, no significant interaction between music piece and music style regarding coffee purchase likelihood was found.

Table 3.

Results (Study 3): Coefficient (β) for Logistical Regression.

Independent Variables	1	2	3	4
Clementi’s Sonatina—Classical Condition	−0.12(0.29)	−0.12(0.29)	0.27(0.28)
Clementi’s Sonatina—Pop Condition	−0.39(0.28)	−0.39(0.28)		−0.27(0.28)
Pavane Op. 50 by Gabriel Fauré—Classical Condition	0.00(0.29)		0.39(0.28)	0.12(0.29)
Pavane Op. 50 by Gabriel Fauré—Pop Condition		0.00(0.29)	0.39(0.28)	0.12(0.29)

Note. SEs are in parentheses. Dependent variable: preference for coffee (“1” = preference for coffee, “0” = preference for another beverage). The independent variables are dummy variables (“1” = the specific music condition, “0” = other music conditions).

Subsequently, a 2 (music piece) × 2 (music style) between-subjects ANOVA was applied to the arousal level (the average of the six arousal dimensions of Mehrabian and Russell’s scale). Here, a main effect for music piece was obtained, F(1, 479) = 56.53, p < .0001, suggesting that the arousal level in the Fauré conditions (M_Fauré = 3.89, SD_Fauré = 0.95) was higher than in Clementi conditions (M_Clementi = 3.27, SD_Clementi = 0.92). On the contrary, the analysis yielded no significant effect for music style, F = 1.57, p = .21. A significant interaction was obtained, F(1, 479) = 44.68, p < .0001, indicating that, regarding the Fauré conditions, arousal level was higher in the pop condition (M_{Fauré_Pop} = 4.21, SD_{Fauré_Pop} = .97) than in the classical condition (M_{Fauré_Classical} = 3.56, SD_{Fauré_Classical} = 0.82), F(1, 479) = 31.49, p < .0001. In the case of the Clementi conditions, however, arousal level was found precisely to be lower in the pop condition (M_{Clementi_Pop} = 3.05, SD_{Clementi_Pop} = .89) than in the classical condition (M_{Clementi_Classical} = 3.49, SD_{Clementi_Classical} = 0.89), F(1, 479) = 14.76, p < .0001. The results are, in general, consistent with those of previous studies, suggesting that while the classical and pop versions of Pavane Op. 50 by Gabriel Fauré are characterized by different arousal levels, the two versions of Muzio Clementi’s Sonatina, by contrast, have few differences, generally speaking, in terms of their arousal level.

Due to the differences in arousal level, and to examine the possibility that music arousal level correlates with coffee purchase likelihood, a logistical regression was conducted on the nominal dependent variable, coffee purchase likelihood, with arousal level as the independent variable. The results indicated a significant positive coefficient of arousal level (β = 0.21, SE = 0.10), Wald(1) = 3.95, Exp(β) = 1.23, p < .05. That is to say, for every increase of one score in arousal level, the odds of choosing coffee were 1.23 times higher than of choosing another beverage.

Discussion

The results of Study 3 replicated those of the previous studies using a different measure for coffee purchase likelihood. Specifically, they suggested a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop), or music piece (Clementi vs. Fauré conditions), meaning that an increase in music arousal level tends to enhance coffee purchase likelihood. The results of Study 3, accordingly, appeared to be consistent with Studies 1 and 2, thus supporting the music congruity hypothesis. That being the case, in Study 4, we attempted to explore the hypothesis more clearly and specifically.

Study 4

Method

Design

The design was akin to that applied in Study 1, except that Study 4 added an arousal level manipulation.

Procedure

The procedure for Study 4 was nearly identical to that applied in Study 1, apart from the music stimuli. The arousal level was manipulated by using two versions of the third movement (Rondo) of Muzio Clementi’s Sonatina for Piano Op. 36, No. 5 but in a different tempo: BPM (beats per minute) = 87 for the low arousal level condition versus BPM = 108 for the high arousal level condition. This manipulation design was based on previous work indicating that (a) fast music is considered more arousing than slow music (e.g., Berlyne, 1971; Bruner, 1990; Garlin & Owen, 2006; Hevner, 1937; Holbrook & Gardner, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1991); (b) people tend to prefer musical pieces with tempi ranging from 70 to 110 cycles per minute (Dainow, 1977; Dowling & Harwood, 1986; Rosenfeld, 1985); and (c) the music piece is in major key, which is consistent with the range of music typically heard in marketing efforts (Kellaris & Rice, 1993).

After listening to the music stimuli, respondents were exposed to a very similar procedure as in Study 1. The Cronbach α for the three scales of Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) arousal level scale was 0.72.

Participants

Three hundred respondents (155 male, 145 female, M_age = 38.33, SD_age = 11.49) completed an online survey. The sample size was determined by an a priori power analysis using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.7; Faul et al., 2007) with a .05 criterion of statistical significance, power of .80, and effect size (f) of 0.3. These conditions, notably, require a sample size of 200 and 278 participants. No significant differences between male and female participants emerged from the results.

Results

Manipulation check

As predicted, as can be seen in Table 4, the arousal level of the participants who listened to the slower music stimuli (low arousal level) condition was lower than that for the high arousal level condition (M_{Low Arousal Level} = 3.84 vs. M_{High Arousal Level} = 5.23), t(298) = 12.95, p < .0001. The results, accordingly, validated the arousal level manipulation.

Table 4.

Results (Study 4).

Variables	M	SD	t
Arousal level (Manipulation Check)
Low arousal level	3.84	0.92	12.95*
High arousal level	5.23	0.94
Coffee purchase likelihood
Low arousal level	5.21	2.23	4.07*
High arousal level	6.03	1.10

p < .0001.

Main dependent measure

As presented in Table 4, in applying a t-test to the two music arousal level conditions, a significant difference between participants in the high arousal level condition versus those in the low arousal level one was found regarding coffee purchase likelihood (M_{Low Arousal Level Condition} = 5.21 vs. M_{High Arousal Level Condition} = 6.03), t(298) = 4.07, p < .0001. Namely, the results indicated that music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood. Participants in the high music arousal level condition reported a greater likelihood to purchase coffee, a product that tends to be associated with higher levels of arousal than those in the low music arousal level condition.

Discussion

The results of Study 4 indicated, in line with previous studies, that music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood. Participants in the high music arousal level condition reported a greater likelihood to purchase coffee, a product that tends to be more closely associated with arousal, than those in the low music arousal level condition. The results, accordingly, appeared to support the music congruity hypothesis suggesting a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood.

General discussion

Recent studies have shown that coffee consumption is influenced by variables related to store atmosphere, including background music (Spence & Carvalho, 2020). However, research findings heretofore concerning the influence of background music and music style on coffee purchase likelihood have been rather limited and ambiguous. As noted earlier, North et al. (2003) found that classical music tended to give rise to greater spending on coffee than pop or no music, and yet in an earlier study, North and Hargreaves (1998) discerned no significant differences between music conditions with respect to coffee spending. Such inconsistent findings raised the key question of whether music style, and specifically classical versus pop music, influences coffee purchase likelihood, which the present study sought to address.

As we have seen, the literature to date has supported two inconsistent hypotheses. On one hand, it was shown that classical music tends to enhance the perception of store and service quality (Baker et al., 1994; Morrison, 2001; Morrison & Beverland, 2003; Sweeney & Wyber, 2002) and thus increase customer spending on some food and beverage items (Areni & Kim, 1993; North et al., 2003). In this regard, the results seem to support the postulation that classical music, in general, has the effect of increasing consumer spending on food and beverages, including coffee, in dining areas.

On the other hand, the musical congruity hypothesis supports a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music genre. In other words, high-arousal background music would tend to elicit a greater preference for coffee because it suits the type of music being played. According to the musical congruity hypothesis, music of an arousing nature would tend to activate related knowledge structures concerning it, which in turn would prime the selection of products associated with high arousal, such as coffee. This hypothesis has been supported by previous findings showing that high-arousal music influences behavior, often by stimulating activity (e.g., McElrea & Standing, 1992; Milliman, 1982, 1986; Roballey et al., 1985; Smith & Curnow, 1966).

The present study, accordingly, has attempted to fill this gap by investigating whether and to what extent music style or music arousal level influences coffee purchase likelihood. Specifically, it has sought to determine whether and to what extent classical versus pop music gives rise to greater coffee purchase likelihood, whether and to what extent music arousal level increases coffee purchase likelihood, and whether and to what extent interaction between music style and music arousal influences coffee purchase likelihood. Its importance stems in part from the fact that coffee is a tremendously popular beverage throughout the world (e.g., Lee & Liao, 2009; Ranfagni et al., 2021). Moreover, recent studies have shown that coffee consumption is influenced by several variables, including personal preference, economic attributes, consumption context, and sociodemographic factors (for reviews, see Grigg, 2002; Samoggia & Riedel, 2018). However, while music’s effects on coffee shop customers have been examined to a limited extent in recent years (e.g., Jeon et al., 2016), no prior study has investigated the influence of music style or music arousal level on coffee purchase likelihood. In four studies, using different music stimuli and different measures, we found a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop), suggesting that an increase in music arousal level tends to enhance coffee purchase likelihood. No significant interaction between music style and music arousal was obtained. The results, consequently, support the musical congruity hypothesis while expanding our understanding of music’s influence on coffee consumption.

Practical implications

Overall, the present findings support the postulation that musical congruity with product characteristics may enhance marketing effectiveness by shaping purchase intent, in that high (vs. low)-arousal music tends to prime the selection of products associated with high (vs. low) arousal. Accordingly, the results suggest that marketers are likely to benefit from choosing background music that is congruent with the essence of the product in question, whether in commercials or in physical venues such as stores, bars, and restaurants, to influence consumer choice. More generally, the present findings deepen our understanding of the factors affecting coffee consumption by exploring the impact of background music on coffee purchase likelihood. Our results appear to have some important practical implications for coffee shop managers, especially in view of the COVID-19 pandemic’s impacts on the market. The pandemic, at least in its initial phases, contributed to sharp sales declines in the coffee sector, including coffee shops (e.g., International Coffee Organization, 2020, Shoup, 2022). Overall, the complex situation has forced coffee entrepreneurs to be more innovative and to apply strategies aimed at enhancing the attractiveness of coffee over other beverages and thereby increase their profits. Bearing this in mind, the results suggest that it might be advantageous for coffee shop managers to manipulate background music in such a way as to influence patrons’ coffee consumption. Using high-arousal background music, congruent with the service environment, for instance, appears to be a promising strategy, which, notably, involves a rather minimal investment in terms of both time and money.

Limitations and directions for future research

Despite the implications outlined above, some limitations of the present study should be noted. First, as already indicated, many coffee-related businesses expanded ordering options during the COVID-19 pandemic, which tended to involve completing orders online. Accordingly, for the present research, we employed an online platform, which simulated up-to-date points of sale in the coffee shop market. However, previous work has underscored potential challenges concerning the use of the internet for research purposes (for a review, see Guadagno, 2019). Moreover, the generalizability of our findings to coffee shops that do not offer online ordering options may be rather dubious. It would be of interest in future studies, therefore, to investigate the phenomenon in the laboratory and in the field.

Second, in order to minimize questionnaire response biases and enhance the coffee purchase likelihood measure’s reliability, we referred in our experiments to Starbucks rather than a generic café or barista. While Starbucks may be one of the largest and most well-known coffeehouse chains in the world, some people may not be fond of or familiar with their products. The experimental design, and specifically the random selection of subjects and large sample size, offered a certain solution to this issue. Future research, however, might investigate the questions explored here while referring to other coffee shops.

Third, the results could be attributed to an innate preference for coffee. In other words, respondents’ basic preference for coffee could have influenced their coffee purchase likelihood during the studies, regardless of music piece, music style or arousal level. Moreover, prior studies have shown that products and services are less likely to be influenced by music when the consumer has high involvement with the product or service in question, that is, high motivation, ability, knowledge, or opportunity to consider its quality or utility (e.g., MacInnis & Park, 1991; North & Hargreaves, 1997; Park & Young, 1986). The present study, however, did not explore the impact of these variables on the results. It should be noted that the experimental design, and specifically the random selection of subjects and large sample size, was meant to ensure internal validity by eliminating alternative rival hypotheses that might have explained the results. During the experiments, respondents were randomly assigned to different research groups. Thus, every respondent had an equal probability of being chosen for one of the groups. As is known, the basic purpose of random assignment is to apportion subjects to treatments. Individuals with varying characteristics are spread approximately equally among the research treatments so that variables that might affect the dependent variable, other than the experimental variable, have “equal” effects. Therefore, it can be assumed that the groups were equal (e.g., Cherulnik, 2001, pp. 149–150; Druckman, 2022, p. 29; Gitlin & Czaja, 2016, pp. 169, 307; Kerlinger & Lee, 2000, pp. 170, 510; Shridhar, 2022, p. 62). In other words, the randomization of respondents and large sample size ensured the formation of fundamentally similar treatment groups in terms of their basic characteristics. By randomly assigning each unit, the experimenter could confidently conclude that any differences between the two groups, on average, stemmed from exposure to the treatment. However, because there is no guarantee that this desirable state of affairs was attained, it would be of interest in future studies, to investigate specifically the influence of innate preference toward coffee, as well as involvement level, on the correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood.

Fourth, it could be argued that the hedonic (pleasure) effect of music influences coffee purchase likelihood. Kantono et al. (2019), for instance, showed by electrophysiology markers that an affective (or “emotion”) mechanism may mediate the relationship between music valence and the perception of food. In order explore this proposition, an additional study, reported in the Supplementary Materials online, was conducted. The study compared the music stimuli used in Study 1 to those used in Study 2. The results indicate, in consonance with the results of Studies 1, 2, and 3, that Study 1 included classical and pop music pieces (versions of “Clementi”) that, generally speaking, have few if any significant differences in terms of their arousal level. In contrast, the arousal level of the pop condition in Study 2 (versions of “Pavane”) was significantly higher than that of the classical condition. Moreover, it was found that the pleasure level of the classical condition was higher than that of the pop condition, especially when considered alongside the music stimuli in Study 1 (“Clementi” vs. “Pavane”). Thus, the pleasure level of classical (vs. pop) music, used in Studies 1, 2 and 3, was notably higher. The hedonic transfer effect hypothesized supports the postulation that classical music, in general, would tend to increase coffee purchase likelihood. The results of the present research, as detailed above, however, do not support this hypothesis. On the contrary, they suggest no significant differences in terms of coffee purchase likelihood between participants in the classical versus pop music conditions or between the two music pieces (Clementi vs. Fauré conditions).

Fifth, considering the scarcity of research to date examining the influence of background music and music style on preference for coffee, we focused on classical and pop music here. This limited scope raises questions regarding the generalizability of our findings, which could be assessed using other types of music, such as jazz, rock, country, folk, and blues. Finally, it should be noted that our research focused exclusively on consumers living in western countries. Future work, therefore, could explore the phenomenon in other parts of the world.

Conclusion

In sum, the study indicates a positive correlation between music arousal level and coffee purchase likelihood, regardless of music style (classical or pop), suggesting that an increase in music arousal level tends to enhance coffee purchase likelihood. It would be of interest in future studies, therefore, to ascertain what the optimal arousal levels might be for positively influencing coffee preference, with the aim of further enriching our understanding of the relationship between background music and coffee consumption.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-pom-10.1177_03057356231153071 – Supplemental material for Does classical versus pop music influence coffee purchase likelihood?

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-pom-10.1177_03057356231153071 for Does classical versus pop music influence coffee purchase likelihood? by Ori Grossman and Matti Rachamim in Psychology of Music

Footnotes

Data availability

Upon request from the corresponding author.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical approval

Ethical approval for this project was given by the Business Administration Research Ethics Committee at Bar-Ilan University.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ori Grossman

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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