1. See, in particular, Richard K. Ashley, The Geopolitics of Geopolitical Space: Toward a Critical Social Theory of lnternational Politics', Alternatives(Vol. 12, No. 4, 1987), pp. 403-34.

2. Here, we are summarising the position taken in Craig N. Murphy and Roger Tooze, 'Theoretical Foundations of a New IPE', in Craig N. Murphy and Roger Tooze (eds.), The New International Political Economy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), pp. 9-31.

3. For an example of such paradigmatic comparison, see Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).

4. Susan Strange. 'An Eclectic Approach', in Murphy and Tooze (eds.), op. cit., in note 2, p. 34. The idea of a 'problem-solving' orthodoxy in IR is taken from Robert W. Cox; see Robert W. Cox with Timothy J. Sinclair, Approaches to World Order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 88.

5. Murphy and Tooze, op. cit., in note 2, pp. 17-24.

6. See John Vasquez, 'The Post-Positivist Debate: Reconstructing Scientific Enquiry and International Relations After Enlightenment's Fall', in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), pp. 217-40.

7. Stephen D. Krasner, 'The Accomplishments of International Political Economy', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory: Positivism and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 108-109.

8. Ibid., p. 125. For critical views see Cox, op. cit., in note 4.

9. See the recent studies by Roxanne Lynn Doty, Imperial Encounters: The Politics of Representation in North-South Relations (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), and William I. Robinson, Promoting Polyarchy: Globalization, US Intervention, and Hegemony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

10. More typically, critical theorists have focused on the ways in which 'global poverty' has become an 'issue' for 'North-South relations', or on how it has recently become an issue for international institutions such as the World Bank. On the former point, see Doty, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 130-31; on the latter, see Cox, op. cit., in note 4, pp. 193-94.

11. Steve Smith, 'Positivism and Beyond', in Smith, Booth, and Zalewski (eds.), op. cit., in note 7, pp. 17-20.

12. In addition to Murphy and Tooze, op. cit., in note 2, see Craig N. Murphy and Cristina Rojas de Ferro, 'Introduction: The Power of Representation in IPE', Review of International Political Economy (Vol. 2, No. 3, 1995), pp. 63-69; Stephen Rosow, Naeem Inayatullah, and Mark Rupert (eds.), The Global Economy as Political Space (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); and John Agnew and Stuart Corbridge, Mastering Space (London: Routledge, 1995).

13. Smith, op. cit., in note 11, p.18.

14. Steve Smith makes an important and compelling case for the mutual and inextricable interrelatedness of ontology and epistemology, where prioritising one over the other 'sets up a false distinction between the two and implies that one is separable from the other'. See Smith, op. cit., in note 11, p. 18.

15. See the work of Paul Krugman, in particular, Krugman, Development, Geography and Economic Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996). See also Paul Ormerod, The Death of Economics (London: Faber and Faber, 1994).

16. Ormerod, op. cit., in note 15, p. 208. See also the work of Peter Proston, particularly in Roy Dilley (ed.), Contesting Markets (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992).

17. See, for example, Jack Hirschleifer, 'The Expanding Domain of Economics', American Economic Review (Vol. 75, No. 6, 1985), pp. 53-68; for a critical view, see Stephen Gill (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and IR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

18. See Donald P. Green and Ian Shapiro, Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), and Emily Hauptmann, Putting Choice Before Democracy: A Critique of Rational Choice Theory (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996).

19. On the problem thus created, see Robert W. Cox, 'Realism. Positivism, and Historicism', in Cox with Sinclair, op. cit., in note 4, pp. 49-59. On the process through which economics became an abstract, ahistorical discourse, see Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 15-21. For comments on the dominance of economics, see Murphy and Tooze, op. cit., in note 2, and Strange, op. cit., in note 4.

20. This notion is embedded and utilised in Gilpin, op. cit., in note 3, and, most explicitly, in Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984).

21. The critique of such accounts of power has been at the centre of Hay ward R. Alker's work. See, especially, Alker, 'Can the End of Power Politics Be Part of the Concepts With Which the Story is Told?: A Leibnizian Reply', and Alker, 'Beneath Tit-for-Tat: The Contests of Political Economy Fairy Tales with SPD Protocols', in Hayward R. Alker (ed.), Rediscoveries and Reformulations: Humanistic Methodologies for International Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 184-206 and 303-31.

22. Susan Strange, States and Markets, Second Edition (London: Pinter, 1994).

23. Especially Cox, op. eit., in note 19 and Alker, 'Beneath Tit-for-Tat', op. cit., in note 21.

24. See Agnew and Corbridge, op, cit., in note 12; Richard Rosecrancc, 'The Rise of the Virtual State', Foreign Affairs (Vol. 74, No. 5, 1996), pp. 45-61; and, in an even more popular vein, Peter Drucker, in an interview with Peter Schwarz and Kevin Kelly, 'The Relentless Contrarian', Wired (Vol. 4, No. 8, 1996), pp. 116-20 and 182-86.

25. Berenice Carroll, 'Peace Research: The Cult of Power', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 16, No. 4, 1972), pp. 585-616.

26. Sandra Whitworth, 'Gender in the Inter-Paradigm Debate', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 18, No. 3, 1989), pp. 265-72; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); and Mary Ann Tetreault, 'Women and Revolution: A Framework for Analysis', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States: Feminist Revisions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993).

27. Much of the 'non-market' activity of the poor in all countries is the 'household' work done by women. The UNDP has begun to try to create reliable comparative data on that work in an attempt to influence national and intergovernmental policy-makers. To do so, the UNDP has given such work a 'market value', concluding that '$16 trillion of global output is "invisible", $11 1 trillion produced by women'. See UNDP, Human Development Report 1995 (New York, NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 97, and passim, for a broader analysis of the economic activity of the poor.

28. See Randall Germain, The International Organisation of Credit (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming, 1997).

29. We are not arguing that global poverty is 'invisible' to all disciplines that employ rational choice methods. Certainly there are a wide range of comparativists and development scholars who study global poverty using such methods. We are, however, arguing that the reason that the topic is relatively rarely found in leading journals and textbooks of IPE, as a part of IR, is because the poor have relatively litte power (of one sort), and IPE still suffers, as all IR does, from Carroll's 'cult of power'.

30. Vilfredo Pareto, The Mind and Society, trans. A. Bongiomo, and A. Livingstone, with J.H. Rogers (New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935).

31. Enrico Augelli and Craig N. Murphy, 'Consciousness, Myth, And Collective Action: Sorel, Gramsci, and the Ethical State', paper prepared for the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Toronto, March 1997.

32. Pareto's centre-right political programme does not necessarily dominate the IPE research that accepts the methodological precepts which he championed. Consider the wide range of Marxist work based on the same precepts. See, for example, John E. Roemer (ed.), Foundations of Analytical Marxism (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1994).

33. Certainly there are comparativists and development scholars who have created rational choice-style models of the action of the poor. See, for example, Samuel L. Popkin, The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1979). Of course, this is also Partha Dasgupta's purpose. What can, at times, remain mysterious and invisible are the self-understandings of the motivations of those they study.

34. UNDP, op. cit., in note 27, p. 97.

35. The interviews recorded in the UN Population Fund-sponsored study of average women in 20 countries makes this point in a striking way. This research is reported in Faith D'Aluisio and Peter Menzel, Women in the Material World (San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, 1996).

36. Karl Polanyi, Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1968).

37. Polly Hill. 'Market Places', in John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman (eds.), The New Palgrave: Economic Development (New York, NY; W.W. Norton, 1989), p. 242.

38. Ibid.

39. Chris A. Gregory, 'Hill, Polly', in Eatwell, Milgate, and Newman (eds.), op. cit., in note 37, p. 155.

40. Hill, op. cil.. in note 37. p. 241.

41. Partha Dasgupta, An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

42. Ibid., pp. 342-76.

43. Ibid., p. v.

44. Ibid., p. vi.

45. R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946), and Carl G. Hempel, 'Reasons and Covering Laws in Historical Explanation', in Patrick Gardiner (ed.), The Philosophy of History, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974).

46. Dasgupta, op. cit., in note 41, p. 319.

47. Ibid., p. 321.

48. Hill, op. cit., in note 37, p. 238.

49. Lloyd Timberlake, 'Guarding Africa's Rcncwahle Resources', in Robert J. Berg and Jennifer S. Whitaker (eds.), Strategies /of African Development (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1986), p. 116.

50. Dasgupta, op. cit., in note 41, p. 103.

51. Ibid., p. 121.

52. See Martin Carnoy and Joel Samoff, Education and Social Transition in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1990).

53. Paulo Friere. Pedagogy in Process: The Letters to Guinea-Bissau (New York, NY: Seabury Press, 1978).

54. Dasgupta, op. cit., in note 41, p. 527.

55. See, for example, Bhikhu Parekh, 'The Cultural Particularity of Liberal Democracy', in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy, North, South, East, West (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 164.

56. David Beetham, 'The Limits of Democratizalion', in Held (ed.), op. cit., in note 57, p. 59.

57. Robinson, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 56-62.

58. Krasner. op. cit., in note 7.

59. See Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions: Two Approaches', in International Institutions and State Power (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), pp. 158-79, and, for a critical view, see Smith, op. cit., in note 11.

60. Jürgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971).

61. In face of significant criticism, Thomas McCarthy does a credible job of defending Habermas's position in Thomas McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 303-307. However, students of IR may find more compelling the similar epistemological position taken by Anatol Rapoport in his classic Fights, Games, and Debates (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1960). Rapoport presents the model of the 'scientific debate' in which each party tries to convince the other of a position by first arguing the case of the opponent to the opponent's satisfaction. This is a practical asymptote to Habermas's 'ideal speech situation', in which unconstrained consensus becomes a guarantor of truth.

62. Doty, op. cit., in note 9. Significantly, the rhetorical moves identified by critical scholars who use literary methods, such as Doty, replicate many of the 'confidence tricks' identified by social psychologists who explore the less-than-perfectly rational ways in which people actually become convinced to act. See Roxanne Lynn Doty with Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: How and Why People Agree to Things (New York, NY: Morrow, 1984).

63. See Craig N. Murphy, 'Seeing Women, Recognizing Gender, Recasting International Relations', International Organization (Vol. 50, No. 3, 1996), pp. 526-31.

64. Dasgupta. op. cit., in note 41.

65. Each of these points is discussed below. A larger literature on the role of NGOs in development has recently appeared. Adil Najam, 'Towards Sustainable Development: NGO Contributions to the Policy Enterprise, A Global Framework', paper presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Academic Council on the UN System, Turin, June 1996, reiterates the conclusions listed here. Isebill V. Gruhn, 'NGOs in Partnership with the UN: A New Fix or a New Problem for African Development', paper presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Academic Council on the UN System, Turin, June 1996, provides a more skeptical view, as does Antonio Donini, 'The Bureaucracy and the Free Spirits: Stagnation and Innovation in the Relationship Between the UN and NGOs', in Thomas G. Weiss and Leon Gordenker (eds.), NGOs, the UN and Global Governance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996), pp. 83-102.

66. Carroll, op. cit., in note 25, pp. 609-14.

67. A point well-illustrated by Alker, 'Beneath Tit-for-Tat', op. cit., in note 21.

68. Robinson, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 56-63.

69. In addition to Robinson, see the discussion of different women's movements for social change throughout Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993).

70. See, for example, Leonardo Boff, Jesus Christ Liberator: A Critical Christology for Our Time (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1981).

71. Peter Solis, 'Partners in Development? The State, NGOs, and the UN in Central America', in Weiss and Gordenker (eds.), op. cit., in note 65.

72. Sylvester, op. cit., in note 26, p. 205.

73. Timberlake, op. cit., in note 49.

74. Ibid., pp. 117-18.

75. Ibid.

76. Craig N. Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change (Cambridge : Polity Press, 1994).

77. Ibid., p. 217. The study reinforced similar conclusions based primarily on experience in Southeast Asia reported by A.F. Robertson, People and the State: An Anthropology of Planned Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 156.

78. Donini, op. cit., in note 65, p. 99.

79. Ibid., pp. 98-100.

80. Ibid., p. 99.

81. Alexander Costy, 'Mozambican NGOs: A Partnership Dilemma in the Emerging Civil Society', Sapen (Vol. 9. No. !, 1995), p. 18.

82. Given how important the principle of 'parsimony' is to IR/IPE theorising, it is perhaps surprising that it is not discussed in most of the 'theory' literature. For an exception (and a critique), see John Vasquez, 'The Post-Positivist Debate', in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), pp. 217-240.

83. Ormerod, op. cit., in note 15, p. 211.

84. These are the patterns at the heart of the long line of psychological studies of colonial resistance. See, for example, Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, NY: Grove Press, 1963); Albert Memmi, The Coloniser and the Colonised (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1965) ; and Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983). These patterns are also central to the classical political sociology of modemisation, for example, David E. Apter, The Politics of Modernisation (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1965), to Freire's pedagogy, and to Gramscian analyses of political change. On Gramsci's rejection of the simple rationality of early twentieth-century economics in favour of contemporary models of a more complex psychology, see Augelli and Murphy, op. cit., in note 31.

85. Sylvester, op. cit., in note 26, and J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectiveson Achieving Global Security (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992).

86. This is the core of the position taken in Murphy and Tooze, op. cit., in note 2, pp. 11-31, and Fuat Keyman, 'Articulating Difference: The Problem of the Other in International Relations Theory', Review of International Political Economy (Vol. 2, No. I, 1995), pp. 70-95.

87. Consider Jürgen Habermas: see McCarthy, op. cit., in note 61, pp. 303-308.

88. Dasgupta, op. cit., in note 41, pp. 338-39. See also Brooke A. Ackerly, 'Testing the Tools of Development: Credit Programs, Loan Involvement, and Women's Empowerment', IDS Bulletin (Vol. 26, No. 3, 1995), pp. 56-68.

89. Michael J. Hogan, America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe, 1947-52 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 135-88.

90. Richard Jolly, 'Growth and Poverty', The John W. Holmes Memorial Lecture to the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Academic Council on the UN System, Turin, June 1996. A revised version of this lecture will be published in Global Governance (Vol. 3, No. 2, forthcoming 1997).

The Epistemology of Poverty and the Poverty of Epistemology in IPE: Mystery,Blindness,and Invisibility

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