Abstract
Empathy is the capacity to recognize the feelings that another person may be experiencing. It is the precursor of moral motivation. This capacity is strictly connected with the human mirror neuron system and is basic to the capacity for moral reasoning. Both empathy and moral reasoning are basic to human living, and one could opine that they are almost innate. They develop from infancy through childhood and adolescence and into adulthood, especially when an individual is raised in a moral society. It could be said that to live with a moral sense in any society, one should demonstrate an empathic concern for the other. Empathy is not limited to humans but is also present in other species, for example, animals such as bonobos and other mammals such as dolphins. It is at the basis of altruistic behavior and prosocial behaviors. It is generally differentiated in cognitive and affective empathy. A lack of empathy is usually associated with alexithymia or with reduced mirror activity in the brain (inferior frontal gyrus) and may be observed in autistic persons due to an impaired theory of mind. Criminals, in general and psychopaths in particular, often act in an antisocial, “anti-other” way because they lack the capacity for empathy and, of consequence, for moral reasoning.
Palmer (2003), in her excellent book Offending Behaviour: Moral Reasoning, Criminal Conduct and the Rehabilitation of Offenders, wrote that Ellis (1982), already decades ago, reported a lower level of empathy among aggressive offenders when compared with nonaggressive ones and that Little (1978) reported that offenders performed poorly in role-taking skills. However, other studies report no difference between offenders and nonoffenders in their capacity to feel empathy for others or in role-taking (e.g., Lee & Prentice, 1988). That stands to reason, because offenders are a heterogeneous group and obviously differ in their degree of empathy and especially in their application of empathic concern toward others. Indeed, it could be argued that psychopaths may experience the capacity for cognitive or even emotional empathy and are capable of recognizing other people’s emotions but decide to disregard them or even to exploit their awareness of them.
Researchers have attempted to measure the degree of people’s empathy. Viewed as the result of intersubjectivity, it can be assessed from a behavioral point of view, for example, through verbal and nonverbal communication, the expression of empathy in feelings or comments, or in facial and bodily reactions to others. In this issue, G. H. P. van der Helm and colleagues present the results of research indicating that a positive group climate is conducive to cognitive empathy. Their review of the literature and their study of 59 incarcerated boys in a correctional facility in the Netherlands led them to the conclusion that empathy may be a motivational factor in moral development. Their literature review pointed out that a nonrepressive social environment has a positive effect, especially on the young, both consciously and unconsciously, contributing to their social maturation, their good socialization, and their growing empathic concern for others. van der Helm et al. not only point out that a favorable group climate facilitates treatment leading to positive outcomes for the young offenders but also theorize that it may reduce their risk of recidivism.
Also in this issue, David Lishner and colleagues present the findings of their research, which focused on cognitive and affective empathy in incarcerated offenders and psychopaths. Interestingly, the results of their study seem to indicate that both groups experience empathy.
That seems to echo earlier studies such as that of Lee and Prentice (1988). Indeed, psychopaths may have the capacity for cognitive empathy. They may be aware of other people’s emotions and, in mimicking them without actually feeling them, they exploit them. The reader will find both articles interesting. Hopefully, they will lead to further research that will follow this important line of inquiry.
This is the last issue of the International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology for 2012. Beginning in 2013, the Journal will be published on a monthly basis. I would like to extend my thanks to the contributors, to the reviewers who give so generously of their time to ensure the quality of the articles that are published, and to all the readers who have made that possible. Best wishes for the holidays to all.