Professional Confidence and Job Satisfaction

Abstract

Understanding substance abuse counselors’ professional confidence and job satisfaction is important since such confidence and satisfaction can affect the way counselors go about their jobs. Analyzing data derived from a random sample of 110 counselors from faith-based and non-faith-based treatment programs, this study examines counselors’ professional confidence and job satisfaction in both faith-based and non-faith-based programs. The multivariate analyses indicate years of experience and being a certified counselor were the only significant predictors of professional confidence. There was no significant difference in perceived job satisfaction and confidence between counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs. A majority of counselors in both groups expressed a high level of satisfaction with their job. Job experience in drug counseling and prior experience as an abuser were perceived by counselors as important components to facilitate counseling skills. Policy implications are discussed.

Keywords

substance abuse treatment substance treatment counselor job satisfaction professional confidence faith-based treatment program secular treatment program

Introduction

Substance abuse treatment staff represent a unique group as many of such staff are recovering addicts themselves (Curtis & Eby, 2010). Studies have found that approximately 37% to 57% of counselors in substance abuse treatment are in recovery from substance abuse (Knudsen, Ducharme, & Roman, 2006; McNulty, Oser, Johnson, Knudsen, & Roman, 2007). The percentage of counselors in recovery is even higher in faith-based treatment programs. Neff, Shorkey, and Windsor (2006) indicate one of the characteristics that distinguishes faith-based (including 12-step) treatment programs from secular treatment programs is that faith-based programs usually recruit recovering abusers or their graduates as staff (counselors). Due to the informality of faith-based programs, staff members who work in these programs tend to receive less formal training and are less likely to hold certification (Neff et al., 2006).

Job satisfaction has been utilized by researchers to assess various job-related outcomes, such as work performance, turnover, absenteeism, and organizational commitment (Judge, Thorensen, Bono, & Patton, 2001; Lambert, Edwards, Camp, & Saylor, 2005). Although a great number of studies have been conducted on employees’ job satisfaction in different professions (e.g., business, law enforcement, education, and medical care; Evans & Hohenshil, 1997), very few studies have specifically looked into substance abuse counselors’ satisfaction with their work. A better understanding of the predictors of substance abuse treatment counselors’ professional confidence and job satisfaction is important as counselors’ attitudes toward their work can be influential on clients as well as treatment outcomes. As Davis and Bove (2008) noted, a health provider’s professional confidence can promote effective interaction between provider and patient and have a prominent effect on patient health and recovery (Hecimovich & Volet, 2011). Professional confidence has long been recognized as a desirable characteristic of health professionals (Hecimovich & Volet, 2011). Duraisingam, Pidd, Roche, and O’Connor (2006) further indicated that counselors’ job satisfaction can affect their morale, work commitment, and even retention (Bride & Kintzle, 2011). Understanding the antecedents of counselors’ job satisfaction is important as it can provide implications for recruiting and retaining qualified counselors (Boothby & Clements, 2002).

Faith-based substance treatment programs have long existed and are widespread in the United States (McCoy, Hermos, Bokhour, & Frayne, 2004). Nevertheless, the perspectives of faith-based treatment counselors in substance abuse recovery have not been adequately addressed in research. A better understanding of counselors’ work-related attitudes (e.g., their perceived professional confidence and job satisfaction) in faith-based and secular treatment programs can provide important information that may be used to maximize the treatment efforts of counselors in both programs, leading to more effective treatment outcomes.

To fill the gap in past literature, this study aims to assess whether program affiliations (faith-based or non-faith-based treatment programs) and other characteristics, such as recovery status and certification, affect counselors’ professional confidence and their job satisfaction. Moreover, the study examines how counselors’ backgrounds (recovery status and status of certification) affect their own perceptions of the importance of the determinants (experience as an abuser, education, formal training, and job experience) in developing professional skills.

Literature Review

Correlates of Job Satisfaction and Professional Confidence

Job satisfaction is usually defined as the extent to which people like their job (Abdulla, Djebarni, & Mellahi, 2011; Spector, 1997). Job satisfaction can be measured globally, such as overall satisfaction with one’s job. The measurement of job satisfaction can also tap into multiple-facets or multiple-dimensions of job satisfaction, such as examining attitudes toward work environment, job autonomy, pay, opportunities for promotion and advancement (MacKain, Myers, Ostapiej, & Newman, 2010; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1987). Job satisfaction has been found to be associated with enhanced productivity and commitment, lower rates of absenteeism and turnover, and greater organizational effectiveness (Abdulla et al., 2011).

A large body of research has examined job satisfaction of employees in various professions, such as persons employed in business, education, health care, and law enforcement. Nevertheless, only a few studies have assessed counselors’ job satisfaction (e.g., psychologists, school counselors, and rehabilitation counselors; Evans & Hohenshil, 1997). Among those studies that examined counselors’ job satisfaction, only a few specifically focus on substance abuse treatment counselors (Capps, Myers, & Helms, 2004; Evans & Hohenshil, 1997).

Analyzing data from a sample of 505 substance abuse counselors, certified by the Commonwealth of Virginia, Evans and Hohenshil (1997) found that counselors included in their sample were very satisfied with their job. They also found that the counselors were most satisfied that their work enables them to help others; they were least satisfied with the lack of opportunities for professional advancement (Evans & Hohenshil, 1997).

In a more recent study, Capps et al. (2004) assessed whether counselor’s history of substance abuse had an impact on interpersonal stress and professional efficiency. Analyzing data from 54 counselors in a prison-based therapeutic community, Capps and his colleagues (2004) found that formal training reduced the work-related and interpersonal stress for counselors who had no history of substance abuse. However, formal training increased the job-related stress as well as interpersonal stress for counselors with a history of substance abuse. Counselors with formal training or counselors with a history of substance abuse were more likely to feel competent in conducting counseling as well as interacting with clients (Capps et al., 2004).

In another study, using data from 1,342 substance abuse counselors, Duraisingam et al. (2006) found that counselors’ job satisfaction was positively correlated with job autonomy, work support, and availability of professional development opportunities. In a recent study, Bride and Kintzle (2011) found that years of experience, education, and caseload were not correlated with either job satisfaction or professional commitment.

Studies have found that counselors in recovery were more likely to be affectively committed to their profession than nonrecovering counselors (e.g., Capps et al., 2004; Curtis & Eby, 2010). Other studies indicated that recovering counselors reported more emotional connection with their clients and affective involvement in their work (e.g., Culbreth, 2000; Curtis & Eby, 2010). McCoy et al. (2004) conducted interviews with 11 staff members working at six faith-based substance treatment programs; they reported that staff working at the faith-based programs placed emphasis on developing fellowship and support systems for clients in the recovery process. The staff stated that “we hung up together, did everything together, and prayed together” (p. 8). Their own faith led staff members to believe that the faith-based treatment format was effective. The staff referred to establishing a healing community as discipling (McCoy et al., 2004).

Although the above studies suggest that counselors working for the faith-based programs and in recovery tend to be affectively committed to their work and consider themselves as helpers (e.g., Curtis & Eby, 2010), it is not clear whether counselors’ group affiliation (faith-based or non-faith-based treatment programs) and other characteristics (e.g., recovery status and status of certification) affect their professional confidence and job satisfaction.

Important Determinants in Development of Professional Skill

Counselors’ professional skill is essential to the success of treatment interventions. Substance abuse treatment counselors represent a unique workforce because many of them are in recovery themselves (Curtis & Eby, 2010). Studies indicate recovering individuals who work in the substance abuse treatment domains can interact with substance abuse clients and walk them through a process that is similar to their own experience of recovery (Curtis & Eby, 2010). Some also maintain that counselors in recovery may be able to establish a close emotional bond with clients due to a shared experience of substance abuse (Capps et al., 2004; Machell, 1991). Recovering counselors thus bring unique qualities to their work and may serve as role models by sharing their experience of abstinence from drugs (Capps et al., 2004; White, 2000).

While some recognize the important role that recovering counselors play in substance abuse treatment, others argue that counselors’ recovery status may not be essential to treatment success (White, 2000). There is a general conception that recovering counselors usually lack professional training and formal education in counseling skill and techniques (Crabb & Linton, 2007). Such formal training and education are considered essential for enhancing self-efficacy and professionalism and developing effective treatment interventions (e.g., Capps et al., 2004; McClanahan et al., 1998). It is also noted that formal training can reduce role ambiguity and thus lead to a reduced level of job stress (Capps et al., 2004). However, direct experience with clients has been found to be a major source of professional development. In Ronnestad and Skovholt’s study (2003), the sampled counselors reported that most of their professional development takes place in the interpersonal experience and contact with clients. For these sampled counselors, theoretical concepts, while important, are of secondary value because the counselors can accept or reject theoretical concepts based upon interpretation of their experiences with their clients (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). Recovery status, education, formal training, and job experience may all play important roles in facilitating professional skills. Counselors with different backgrounds (e.g., recovery status and status of certification) may assign different weight to the importance of each of the above. A better understanding of counselors’ perceived importance of these determinants can help us envision more effective interventions and promote professional skills and techniques that best suit counselors’ backgrounds.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

As indicated in the above literature, counselors with a history of substance abuse are more likely to relate to clients due to a shared history (Capps et al., 2004). Thus, they may feel easier to connect with substance abusers and develop the rapport necessary for a therapeutic relationship. It is hypothesized that counselors with recovery status would be more satisfied with their job than counselors who were not recovering addicts. As McCoy and his colleagues (2004) learned, counselors working for faith-based treatment programs oftentimes consider themselves as disciples of God. They usually view their job as “doing God’s work through their own actions” (p. 7). This study suggests that counselors working for the faith-based programs tend to be affectively committed to their job and consider themselves as helpers (McCoy et al., 2004). It is assumed that the fulfillment through the job would lead to a higher level of satisfaction. Consequently, it is predicted that counselors in the faith-based treatment programs would be more likely to be satisfied with their job compared with their counterparts in the non-faith-based treatment programs.

With regard to professional confidence, certification can be considered a professional recognition as the process of certification includes scrutiny of professional knowledge and skills in counseling. We thus hypothesize that counselors who hold certification would be more likely to have a higher degree of confidence compared with their colleagues who do not hold such certification. In addition, because counselors in faith-based treatment programs usually lack formal education and training and are less likely to hold certification (Neff et al., 2006; Sung & Chu, 2008), we would assume that counselors in faith-based programs would be less confident in conducting counseling compared with their colleagues in non-faith-based treatment programs. Finally, as delineated in the literature review, it is hypothesized that counselors with different backgrounds (recovery status; status of certification) may perceive the importance of the determinants (experience as an abuser, education, formal training, and job experience) in developing professional skills in different ways.

Data and Method

Data Collection and Samples

To empirically examine professional confidence and job satisfaction between counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs, we took random sample independently from both programs. Counselors who worked for faith-based and non-faith-based programs were randomly selected and invited to participate in the survey. An evangelical Christian substance abuse treatment network, Teen Challenge, was selected as the pool of faith-based counselors. Teen Challenge is a worldwide Christianity-based treatment provider. The rationale for us to select Christian programs was because they are widely represented in faith-based substance recovery programs in the United States (McCoy et al., 2004). Faith-based counselors were randomly selected from 232 facilities affiliated with Teen Challenge treatment programs in the United States based on a list of all facilities listed on the 2006 Teen Challenge Facility Directory (Sung, Chu, Richter, & Shlosberg, 2009; Teen Challenge USA, 2006).

The counselors of non-faith-based programs were randomly selected from the 4,435 residential treatment providers according to the National Directory of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Programs 2005 (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2005). To compare whether counselors’ perceived job satisfaction and professional confidence in faith-based programs differ from those of counselors in non-faith-based programs, we did not consider programs with observable religious connection, such as the Salvation Army and the Catholic Charities, to emphasize secularity of the comparison group. Sample selection of faith-based and non-faith-based programs was based on random numbers generated for each of the population sources (Sung et al., 2009).

Survey questions were developed from several resources, such as the General Social Survey compiled by the National Opinion Research Center (2007) at the University of Chicago and the Survey of Structure and Operations gathered by the Institute of Behavioral Research (2006) at Texas Christian University.

A pretest was conducted with 12 counselors in 2006 in Odyssey House, a secular substance abuse treatment provider in New York City. Participants in the pretest stated the survey questions were appropriate. Minor revisions to enhance the clarity of the survey questions were made based on the feedback from the participants in the pretest. A formal self-administered questionnaire was distributed by mail between May and December of 2006. A total of 217 survey packets were mailed out (112 were sent to Teen Challenge facilities and 105 were sent to non-Teen Challenge facilities); each packet consisted of a copy of the questionnaire, a consent form, a US$3-cash incentive, along with a cover letter that provided participants with the information regarding this research. One hundred and ten (59 from Teen Challenge facilities and 51 were from non-Teen Challenge facilities) out of 217 surveys were returned, resulting in a 51% of response rate. The response rate for faith-based (Teen Challenge) counselors was 53% and the response rate for non-faith-based treatment providers (non-Teen Challenge) was 49%. The characteristics of the respondents were similar to those of the counselors who worked for faith-based and non-faith-based programs.

The demographic characteristics of counselors in the faith-based and non-faith-based facilities are displayed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics of Counselors’ Demographic Characteristics.

	Faith-based treatment program number (%)	Non-faith-based treatment program number (%)
	M (SD)	M (SD)
Sex
Male	36 (61.0%)	25 (49.0%)
Female	23 (39.0%)	26 (51.0%)
Total	59 (100.0%)	51 (100.0%)
Race
White	39 (66.1%)	38 (74.5%)
African American	12 (20.3%)	11 (21.6%)
Hispanic	5 (8.5%)	0 (0.0%)
Asian	0 (0.0%)	1 (2.0%)
Native American	2 (3.4%)	0 (0.0%)
Others	1 (1.7%)	1 (2.0%)
Total	59 (100.0%)	51 (100.0%)
Education
Less than high school	3 (5.1%)	1 (2.0%)**
High school or GED	20 (33.9%)	3 (5.9%)**
Some college or associate degree	17 (28.8%)	20 (39.2%)**
Four-year college graduate	13 (22.0%)	14 (27.5%)**
Graduate degree	6 (10.2%)	13 (25.5%)**
Total	59 (100.0%)	51 (100.0%)
Certified counselor
Certified	10 (16.9%)	36 (72.0%)***
Uncertified	49 (83.1%)	14 (28.0%)***
Total	59 (100.0%)	50 (100.0%)
Recovering abuser
Yes	44 (75.9%)	39 (76.5%)
No	14 (24.1%)	12 (23.5%)
Total	58 (100.0%)	51 (100.0%)
Extent of religion
Not religious at all	0 (0.0%)	1 (2.0%)**
Slightly religious	0 (0.0%)	4 (7.8%)**
Moderate religious	10 (17.2%)	20 (39.2%)**
Very religious	48 (82.8%)	26 (51.1%)**
Total	58 (100.0%)	51 (100.0%)
Age	40.73 (9.56)	48.35 (10.76)***
Years of experience in drug counseling	6.62 (6.21)	7.99 (6.69)
Caseload	15.60 (12.75)	12.01 (7.98)

Note. GED = general educational development.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

As shown in Table 1, the ratio of male to female counselors is higher in the faith-based programs (61% males vs. 39 females). In contrast, there is a slightly higher percentage of female counselors in the non-faith-based treatment program (49% males vs. 51% females).

On average, counselors’ education level in non-faith-based programs is higher than that of faith-based programs. In addition, the percentage of certified counselors in non-faith-based programs is much higher compared with faith-based programs. More than 70% of counselors in non-faith-based programs were certified, while only 17% of counselors in faith-based programs were certified. With regard to counselors’ background of prior substance abuse, counselors in both programs seemed to have a similar history. Counselors in faith-based programs were more religious than counselors in non-faith-based programs. The average age of the counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs was 40.73 and 48.35, respectively. The mean length of work experience for faith-based counselors was 6.62 years, while the average length for non-faith-based counselors was 7.99 years. With regard to the caseload, counselors in faith-based programs carried a heavier load compared with counselors in non-faith-based programs (15.6 cases for faith-based counselors vs. 12.01 cases for non-faith-based counselors).

Measures

Dependent variables

The primary dependent variables include job satisfaction, job confidence, and importance for skill development. The variable “job satisfaction” was based on a single item: “On the whole, how satisfied are you with the work you do?” (1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = a little dissatisfied, 3 = moderately satisfied, 4 = very satisfied). The rationale for us to adopt a single item that aims to tap overall satisfaction was based on the following. Although some researchers cautioned against the practice of summing up different facets of satisfaction scales as a measurement of global satisfaction (e.g., Balzer et al., 1997), MacKain et al. (2010) noted that a single item that captures overall satisfaction would do as well or even better than a summation of diverse facets of satisfaction ratings. This subjective single-item measurement was also adopted in Boothby and Clements’s (2002) study.

The variable “professional confidence” was based on this question: “Do you agree that you have the skills and confidence needed to conduct effective counseling?” (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree).

To determine the most important variable in developing job skills, the following question was asked of participants:

Think about the counseling skills that you use in your job. Which of the following was most important in developing these skills? (Check one) (1) formal schooling; (2) past experience as a recovering substance abuser; (3) drug abuse counseling training; (4) experience gained in your present or in a previous job.

These variables are treated as a nominal level of measurement. Selections of one of the four were coded as “1,” “2,” “3,” “4,” respectively.

Independent and Control Variables

The independent variables include program affiliation, recovering status, and certification. Program affiliation was coded as a dummy variable, with 1 denoting that the counselor worked in the Teen Challenge-affiliated substance treatment network. It was coded as 0 if the counselor worked for a non-Teen Challenge treatment programs. Certification was coded as a dummy variable, with 0 representing the status as uncertified or unlicensed, and 1 indicating certified or licensed. Recovery status is a dummy variable, with 0 denoting no history of substance abuse, and 1 denoting a history of substance abuse.

The control variables consisted of gender, race, education level, age, years of experience, caseload, and extent of religiosity. Gender is a dummy variable, with 1 representing male and 0 representing female. Both “age” and “years of experience” are continuous variables. Race was coded as a dummy variable, with 0 representing non-White and 1 denoting White. Education level was an ordinal variable: 1 = less than high school, 2 = high school or general educational development (GED), 3 = some college or associate degree, 4 = 4-year college graduate, and 5 = graduate degree. Caseload is a continuous variable based on a question in which the counselor was asked, on average, how many clients he or she has in his or her treatment caseload at any time.

Religiosity and religious membership have been shown to be significantly correlated with job satisfaction and self-rated job performance (Cunningham, 2010; Walker, 2013); therefore, we decided to control for the confounding effect of religious background on the outcome variables by including a dichotomous variable to flag Protestants who had long been identified as carriers of unique work ethics (Weber, 2002). Protestant was coded as a dummy variable, with 0 representing non-Protestant and 1 representing Protestant. The primary focus of the current study is to examine whether counselors’ program affiliation (rather than individual religiosity) affects their job satisfaction and confidence. Because counselors’ religiosity may affect job satisfaction and confidence, we have included extent of religiosity as a control variable. “Extent of religiosity” was an ordinal variable: 1 = not religious or spiritual at all, 2 = slightly religious or spiritual, 3 = moderately religious or spiritual, and 4 = very religious or spiritual. In the regression model of job satisfaction, we included “responsibility to reduce suffering,” “spending on drug programs,” “funding faith-based treatment,” and “skill and confidence” as control variables. Responsibility to reduce suffering was based on the question: “I feel a deep sense of responsibility for reducing pain and suffering in the world” (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree). Spending on drug programs was based upon a single item: “Would you like to see more or less government spending on drug abuse treatment? Remember that more government spending might require a tax increase” (1 = spend much less, 2 = spend less, 3 = spend as the same as now, 4 = spend more, 5 = spend much more). Funding faith-based treatment was based on this question: “Should the government fund faith-based drug treatment programs?” (1 = yes, 0 = no). Skill and confidence were based on a single item: “Do you agree that you have the skills and confidence needed to conduct effective counseling?” (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree).

Analysis Plan

Two types of analyses, chi-square significance test and multivariate regression, were conducted. The chi-square test focused on the bivariate relationship between counselors’ program affiliation, status of certification, recovery status and their professional confidence, job satisfaction, and perceived importance for skill development. In the multivariate analyses, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and multinomial logistic regression were employed. OLS was utilized to examine the effects of independent variables (program affiliation, certification status, and recovering status,) and control variables on the variables of “professional confidence” and “job satisfaction.”

Multinomial regression was conducted to estimate the predictors of perceived important components of skill development among “counseling experience,” “formal training,” and “prior experience as an abuser” (formal schooling was treated as a reference group).

Results

Cross-Tabulation

Table 2 presents the results of the cross-tabulation of counselors’ professional confidence by program affiliation and recovery status. As shown in Table 2, approximately 97% and 98% of the counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs, respectively, strongly agreed or agreed that they had the skills and confidence needed to conduct effective counseling. It is worth noting that nearly two thirds of the non-faith-based counselors strongly agreed that they had the skills and confidence while only one third of the faith-based ones said they strongly agreed to such a statement. The chi-square test indicated that the relationship between program affiliation and perceived confidence was significant.

Table 2.

Cross-Tabulations of Perceived Confidence by Affiliation and Status of Certification.

	Program affiliation		Certification
Have confidence and skills	Faith-based % (n)	Non-faith-based % (n)	Certified counselors % (n)	Noncertified counselors % (n)
Strongly agree	31.0 (18)	64.0 (32)	68.9 (31)	30.6 (19)
Agree	65.5 (38)	34.0 (17)	31.1 (14)	64.5 (40)
Disagree	3.5 (2)	2.0 (1)	0.0 (0)	4.8 (3)
Total % (n)	100.0 (58)	100.0 (50)	100.0 (45)	100.0 (62)
χ²	11.74**		16.10***

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

However, the chi-square test indicated that counselor’s status of certification had a significant difference in perceived confidence. One hundred percent of the certified counselors and 95% of uncertified counselors reported that they had confidence and skill to conduct effective counseling with effective counseling (either strongly agreed or agreed).

Table 3 presents the results of job satisfaction by program affiliation and recovery status. Approximately 95% of the faith-based counselors and 98% of the non-faith-based counselors were satisfied with their work (either very satisfied or moderately satisfied). The second panel of Table 3 displays the relationship between counselors’ recovery status and satisfaction with work. As can be gleaned from the first and second panels of Table 3, a vast majority of the counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs were satisfied with their job (regardless of their program affiliation and recovery status). The chi-square significance test indicated there was no significant difference in perceived job satisfaction between counselors of different affiliations and recovery status.

Table 3.

Cross-Tabulations of Satisfaction With Job by Affiliation and Recovery Status.

	Program affiliation		Recovery status
Satisfaction with job	Faith-based % (n)	Non-faith-Based % (n)	Recovering addict % (n)	Nonrecovering addict % (n)
Very satisfied	69.5 (41)	64.0 (32)	66.3 (55)	68.0 (17)
Moderately satisfied	25.4 (15)	34.0 (17)	30.1 (25)	28.0 (7)
A little dissatisfied	3.4 (2)	2.0 (1)	2.4 (2)	4.0 (1)
Very dissatisfied	1.7 (1)	0.0 (0)	1.2 (1)	0.0 (0)
Total % (n)	100.0 (59)	100.0 (50)	100.0 (83)	100.0 (25)
χ²	1.84		.51

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 4 displays the responses to the question about the most important determinant in developing counseling skills by group affiliation. As shown in Table 4, about 43% of the faith-based and 39% of the non-faith-based counselors perceived job experience as the most important determinant for developing counseling skills. Approximately 47% and 41% of the counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based programs, respectively, perceived experience as an abuser as critical in developing counseling skills. Only 3% of the faith-based and 10% of the non-faith-based counselors considered formal training in counseling as important for skill development. Approximately 7% of the faith-based and 10% of the non-faith-based counselors noted that formal schooling is central in developing counseling skills.

Table 4.

Cross-Tabulations of Most Important Determinant in Developing Job Skills by Affiliation.

Most important determinant in developing job skills	Program affiliation
Most important determinant in developing job skills	Faith-based % (n)	Non-faith-based % (n)
Job experience	43.1 (25)	38.8 (19)
Drug abuse counseling training	3.4 (2)	10.2 (5)
Experience as abuser	46.6 (27)	40.8 (20)
Formal schooling	6.9 (4)	10.2 (5)
Total % (n)	100.0 (58)	100.0 (49)
χ²	2.52

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Multiple Regression Analyses

Professional confidence

Table 5 displays the results of multiple regression analysis. Collinearity among all independent and control variables was examined by the variance inflation factor (VIF; results not shown). All of the VIF values are below 2.0, and there is no indication of collinearity.

Table 5.

Multiple Regression Summary.

	Counselors’		Most important in developing job skill
Variables	Professional confidence^a	Job satisfaction^a	Job experience^b,c	Counseling training^b,c	Experience as abuser^b,c
Faith-based program (1 = yes)	−0.16 (0.13)	−0.06 (0.18)	0.52 (1.29)	1.45 (2.45)	0.67 (1.21)
Sex (1 = male)	0.10 (0.11)	0.11 (0.15)	0.97 (1.03)	−2.64 (2.12)	1.28 (1.01)
Age	−0.00 (0.01)	−0.00 (0.01)	0.07 (0.50)	0.14 (0.16)	−0.02 (0.05)
Race (1 = White)	0.19 (0.12)	0.09 (0.15)	−0.02 (1.08)	−2.18 (1.93)	0.47 (1.09)
Education level	0.07 (0.05)	0.07 (0.07)	−0.02 (0.47)	−0.77 (0.76)	−0.13 (0.46)
Certified counselor (1 = yes)	0.30* (0.12)	0.04 (0.16)	−1.08 (1.19)	4.26 (2.98)	−0.91 (1.16)
Recovering abuser (1 = yes)	−0.02 (0.13)	−0.08 (0.17)	0.42 (1.07)	1.96 (1.94)	3.33** (1.25)
Caseload	−0.00 (0.01)	0.00 (0.01)	0.10 (0.07)	0.22* (0.11)	0.10 (0.07)
Years of experience	0.03** (0.01)	0.01 (0.01)	0.38* (0.17)	0.45* (0.21)	0.26 (0.17)
Extent of religiosity	0.13 (0.09)	0.16 (0.12)	−0.69 (0.89)	1.28 (2.21)	−1.37 (0.89)
Protestant (1 = yes)	−0.08 (.11)	0.18 (.14)	−0.38 (1.08)	3.92 (2.17)	0.10 (1.04)
Responsibility to reduce suffering	—	−0.12 (0.09)	—	—	—
Spending on drug programs	—	0.16* (0.08)	—	—	—
Funding faith-based treatment	—	0.04 (0.03)	—	—	—
Skills and confidence	—	0.09 (0.14)	—	—	—
R ²	.33	.20	.57

Note. Entries are unstandardized regression coefficients, with standard errors in parentheses.

Ordinary least squares regression.

Multinomial logistic regression.

Formal education is the reference group.

p < .05. **p <. 01. ***p <. 001.

As displayed in the first column of Table 5, neither a counselor’s program affiliation nor a counselor’s extent of religiosity was a correlate of the counselor’s professional confidence. Only certification and years of experience in counseling were significant predictors of perceived confidence in counseling work. In other words, counselors who were certified (or licensed) were more likely to perceive that they had skills and confidence in conducting their work. Likewise, counselors with more years of experience were more likely to have confidence in conducting counseling work. None of the demographic variables were found to be associated with perceived confidence in work. Those independent and control variables accounted for 33% of the variance of the dependent variable.

Job satisfaction

Turing to the second column, “job satisfaction,” we saw that neither a counselor’s program affiliation nor demographic variables were predictive of perceived satisfaction with work. Among the exogenous and control variables, only the variable “spending on drug programs” was significantly correlated with job satisfaction. That is, those counselors who believed that the government should spend more money on drug treatment programs were more likely to be satisfied with their work. Only 20% of variance was explained by the independent and control variables in this model.

Most important determinant in developing job skills

The third to fifth columns of Table 5 demonstrate the results of multinomial logistic regression on perceived important determinants for developing job skills. In the model, formal education was treated as a reference group. As can be seen in the third column of Table 5, counselors with more years of counseling experience were more likely to perceive job experience as the most important determinant in developing job skills. As shown in Column 4, counselors who had a heavy caseload and were more experienced were more prone to stressing the importance of counseling training. The last column of Table 5 indicates that those who were recovering abusers were more likely to endorse experience as a drug abuser as an important component of skill development.

Discussion

Our study begins by asking the following questions. First, are counselors in recovery status more likely to be satisfied with their job than counselors who are not recovering abusers? Second, is there a significant difference in counselors’ satisfaction with their job depending on whether they work in faith-based or non-faith-based drug treatment programs? Third, are counselors who hold certification more likely to have confidence in conducting their work? Fourth, are counselors in faith-based programs less prone to perceive that they had the skills and confidence to conduct their work? Finally, do counselors with different characteristics place different weights on the important determinants in developing job skills?

The findings indicate neither counselors’ recovery status nor their group affiliation was predictive of their job satisfaction, which contradicts our first and second hypotheses. While the bivariate chi-square test indicates that there was a significant difference in perceived confidence, with non-faith-based counselors showing more confidence than faith-based counselors, the program effect diminished in the multivariate analysis (when other independent and control variables were included in the model). Instead, certification and length of counseling experience were shown to be predictive of perceived confidence in performing job-related duties. Finally, as predicted, counselors with different backgrounds perceived the important determinants in developing skills in different ways. Counselors with more experience viewed job experience and counseling training as important determinants (vs. formal education), whereas recovering counselors perceived experience as an abuser as an essential factor. However, counselors with heavier caseloads felt that training was an important determinant in developing skills.

The findings that counselors’ group affiliation and recovery status did not influence their perceived job satisfaction are unexpected. We assumed that counselors in the faith-based program would be more satisfied with their work; that is, they were affectively committed to their work due to their emphasis on fellowship and support systems. It was also hypothesized that recovering counselors would be more satisfied with their work because they tended to establish an affective connection with the clients through similar experiences of substance abuse. Unexpectedly, the findings indicate counselors in both groups demonstrated an equally high level of job satisfaction. The high morale reflected in the level of job satisfaction for counselors in both groups may be attributed to the common nature of their work; such work was fulfilling to counselors because they assisted others in the recovery process.

The issues of licensing and certification have been passionately contested within the community of faith-based providers. At the heart of the controversy is a conflict of views on the definition of substance abuse and addiction. Whereas state regulatory officials routinely side with the scientific interpretation of addiction as essentially a brain disease, many faith-based recovery providers contend that addiction is basically a matter of morality (Sung et al., 2009). By meeting state standards and reporting requirements, they would be forced to adopt the biological model of treatment favored by the state and the larger scientific community. Faith-based providers of recovery services gained access to federal aid money in 2004 through the Access to Recovery (ATR) voucher program, which allowed religious organizations receiving government money through ATR to use a religious curriculum in treatment (Sung & Chu, 2008). Debates have raged around the constitutionality of ATR; many civil liberty groups claim that it violates the separation of church and state, while others are disturbed by funding services that do not meet state licensing requirements or medically sanctioned standards.

Our findings indicate that certification was a significant predictor of perceived professional confidence—regardless of a counselor’s program affiliation (faith-based or non-faith-based). In that a relatively high percentage of counselors at faith-based substance treatment programs are not certified (licensed), faith-based treatment providers should manage their programs so as to comply with federal, state, and local accreditation regulations and should also encourage counselors to get certified. Credentials and certification are good ways to expose providers to evidence-based practices, and more importantly to strengthen their professional confidence. Clinical knowledge and skills evaluated in these licensing examinations do not have to replace the religious core of faith-based programs, but can serve as useful supplements to their faith-based interventions. Also, credentialing and certification have the potential to boost the public image of administrators and counselors in faith-based programs.

Although counselors perceived their personal experience as important in developing their skills, they also acknowledged the importance of professional training. It is especially true for counselors with more experience and heavier caseloads. Professional efficacy can be facilitated by a firm educational grounding, supported by a period of formal training to acquire the relevant knowledge and skills in the workplace (France et al., 2008). Thereafter, continued professional growth rests on a combination of education, continuous development, competence, and experience. Professional progression depends on the motivation of individual counselors to learn and develop and the extent to which their employer supports them and enables them to do so. It also depends on the professional standards that they are required or expected to meet, and on the wider systems for ensuring that those standards are adhered to. Counselors’ confidence also depends upon counselors themselves having an honest understanding of their abilities. It is crucial that errors in practice, or gaps in skill or knowledge, are acknowledged as early as possible and used as an opportunity for learning, rather than being suppressed or hidden out of fear of blame or sanction. Learning through mistakes can often be a very effective way of improving confidence and understanding. But to acknowledge errors and shortcomings, counselors must feel safe to do so. Managers, therefore, must create an environment that enables this to happen.

Although our study provides valuable information, limitations remain. First, our measure of job satisfaction was only based on a single item. Some researchers contend that a single item that captures overall satisfaction would do as well, or even better than a summation of diverse facets of satisfaction ratings (e.g., MacKain et al., 2010). However, we have to acknowledge that multiple items may tackle job satisfaction from different dimensions and would be a better way to measure the construct of job satisfaction. Likewise, another limitation is using a single item to measure professional confidence. In addition, one cannot rule out the possibility of a double-barreled effect as the question on professional confidence asked about skill and professional confidence at the same time. Future research should include multiple items to capture the diverse facets of job satisfaction and professional confidence to help alleviate these problems. In addition, in-depth interviews may help unravel the underlying factors affecting counselors’ job satisfaction and professional confidence.

Second, although the sample in faith-based and non-faith-based programs was taken by random, the percentage of our sampled counselors with a history of substance abuse in both groups tends to be higher than the average rate identified in previous studies. As indicated by a number of studies, the recovery status can foster counselors’ professional as well as organizational commitment because recovering counselors shared the same experience as their clients and may hold different perspectives from those of counselors without a history of substance abuse. Future research can include a larger sample that entails more counselors with and without substance abuse history to further investigate whether attitudinal differences exist in counselors between the two different groups.

While counselors in the faith-based programs were less educated and less likely to be certified compared with their colleagues in non-faith-based programs, they were not less satisfied with their work than the other colleagues. The findings of the current study reveal that counselors in faith-based and non-faith-based treatment programs demonstrate a high level of satisfaction. This promising finding suggests that counselors in general liked their job. That certification and length of counseling experience are significant predictor of job confidence highlights the importance of continued professional growth. Credentialing and certification have the potential to boost counselors’ professional confidence.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study is supported by the grant 2005012, awarded by the Religious Institutions Grant Program of the Louisville Institute.

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