Understanding and Preventing Financial Fraud Against Older Citizens in Chinese Society

Abstract

This study examines the public discourse on financial fraud against older citizens in Chinese society using six focus groups with 45 stakeholders comprising social workers, police officers, caregivers, nurses, community representatives, and insurance and banking personnel. This study uses qualitative data to describe the patterns and social features that facilitate this specific type of crime in Hong Kong. The narratives of the community stakeholders reveal several specific social features of Hong Kong that contribute to financial fraud against older persons, such as traditional Chinese values and ideologies, increasing cross-border activities, the Internet and technological advancements, and unfavourable economic situations. The results of this study support the assumptions of the routine activity approach and have a number of theoretical and practical implications.

Keywords

Chinese society financial fraud older citizens routine activity approach stakeholders

Introduction

The aging population trend and its consequences have become a global concern. The global proportion of older people (i.e., aged 60 years and above) increased from 9.2% in 1990 to 11.7% in 2013. The percentage of elderly people is expected to continue to increase along with the world population, reaching 21.1% by 2050. Furthermore, the older population is projected to exceed the number of children for the first time in 2047 (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2013). Unfortunately, elderly people tend to be attractive targets of financial fraud largely because they (a) have more assets, (b) more leisure time, (c) are isolated, (d) are anxious about the future (Harris, 1995), and (e) are less likely to report and acknowledge being victims of financial fraud (Pak & Shadel, 2011). Therefore, the crime prevention measures in an aging society are of paramount importance to policy makers and criminal justice practitioners.

This study was conducted in the Chinese coastal city of Hong Kong. Before 1997, Hong Kong was under the colonial rule of the British government for almost 100 years. The population of Hong Kong reached 7.1 million in 2011 and 94% of its citizens are of Chinese descent (Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2013). In Hong Kong, financial fraud against elderly is defined as “any act which involves depriving an elderly person of his/her wealth, or not acting in his/her interests, including getting an elderly person’s possessions, money or assets (such as property and public housing tenancy) without his/her consent” (Social Welfare Department, 2014b). Financial fraud against older citizens is a timely and important topic for investigation. First, the Hong Kong population has been undergoing an aging trend. The proportion of people aged 65 or above in the total population is projected to rise from 13% in 2011 to 19% in 2021, 26% in 2031, and 30% in 2041 (Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2012), making this group inevitably important in crime prevention. Second, a recent Victimisation Survey conducted in Hong Kong indicated that the victimisation rate by deception is 1.2% for citizens aged 65 and above, which is slightly higher than that for the 12 to 19 and 30 to 39 (1.1%) and 50 to 64 (0.8%) age groups (Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2007). In addition, in 2013, among the 589 total reported cases for elderly abuse, about 12% (70 cases) belonged to financial abuse (Social Welfare Department, 2014a). However, the number of unreported cases should not be underestimated, given the limited social awareness of the issue among the elderly and the reluctance to report abuse involving family members. Finally, although a number of recent studies have investigated financial fraud or abuse against older citizens in Chinese societies (e.g., Dong, Simon, Odwazny, & Gorbien, 2008; Tiwari, Yan, & Lee, 2013; Wu et al., 2012), few have specifically addressed financial fraud and the circumstances of the victims remain unclear.

Previous studies have analysed demographic characteristics of the elderly and their vulnerability to financial crimes. One study found that financial fraud victims tended to be relatively affluent, well-educated, comparatively younger, and had extensive networks of family and friends (Titus, Heinzelmann, & Boyle, 1995). In contrast, another study conducted in the Netherlands indicated that males, those living alone, and persons with depressive symptoms were among the groups with the highest risk of financial mistreatment (Comijs, Smit, Pot, Bouter, & Jonker, 1999). A similar conclusion was reached by a U.S. study showing that advanced age (i.e., over 75 years), social isolation or living alone, taking multiple medications, having constrained social networks, and middle or upper income were associated with a greater risk of financial exploitation (Hall, Hall, & Chapman, 2005). However, a recent study in the United States found a weak relationship between the levels of education and income and elderly people’s susceptibility to scams (James, Boyle, & Bennett, 2014). Based on a sample of 2,000 older inhabitants in China, another study found that 2% of the respondents claimed to have been subject to financial mistreatment and that physical disability and having a labour-intensive job were the main risk factors (Wu et al., 2012). Overall, the above studies appear to have reached different conclusions on the influences of age, gender, and socio-economic background on financial fraud among older people. Thus, further research is needed to obtain a clearer picture of the determinants of financial fraud against elderly people in Hong Kong.

The justifications for this study are as follows: First, most cities in the world are experiencing an aging trend and Hong Kong is no exception. Second, elderly crime victims have a special claim on our social conscience, and community stakeholders play an essential role in preventing and resolving financial fraud against the elderly population. However, few studies have examined public perceptions of financial fraud against the elderly, especially in Chinese society. Third, although prior research has shown that the daily routines of elderly people are related to their victimisation, little is known about how such social context shapes the daily routines of individual members of a particular society. This study aims to fill this theoretical gap. Considering that financial frauds committed by family and non-family members are not identical and that focus group participants may not be well informed about financial exploitation by family members, this study focuses on financial fraud committed by non-family members. Moreover, the scope of investigation is limited to financial fraud committed by individuals rather than organisations.

Literature Review

Financial fraud refers to

any form of intentional perversion of truth, or trickery deliberately practice in order to gain advantage or end, unfairly and dishonestly, in order to deprive another person of his her property, legal rights, or interests, or to induce another person to relinquish something of value, and which causes that person to suffer a loss. (Sharpe, 2004, p. 5)

Financial fraud against elderly people is considered financial abuse, which is one of the five forms of elder abuse¹ recognised by the National Center on Elder Abuse (2006). The negative consequences of different types of financial fraud against elderly victims can be economic, such as the loss of life savings, and psychological, such as despair, loss of the will to live, and depression (Sharpe, 2004). The family members of elderly crime victims also experience economic strain in paying for the services needed by their elderly relatives (Payne, 2011).

Older persons were found to be more commonly affected by consumer fraud (Carcach, Graycar, & Muscat, 2001; Reisig & Holtfreter, 2013) and confidence tricksters (Duncan, 1981) than other population groups. However, financial fraud against the elderly has been largely ignored in most societies because of the focus on youth crime. In 1999, Susan Herman, Executive Director of National Center for Victims of Crime, stated,

Elderly victims of fraud are among the most underserved of any victim group. Every day there are thousands of cases of elderly people scammed by home services, defrauded by caregivers, exploited by neighbours or family members, or tricked by the unscrupulous. Best estimates are that 20% of the elderly have been victims of some kinds of fraud. (cited in Sharpe, 2004, p. 8)

Undoubtedly, instances of financial fraud against senior citizens are underreported and less investigated. Thus, this issue warrants greater attention.

Johnson (2004) proposed two general categories of financial fraud against older people: (a) financial fraud committed by strangers and (b) financial exploitation by relatives and caregivers. This categorisation is based on the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. In regard to financial fraud committed by strangers, Johnson listed 12 forms of interaction: “prizes and sweepstakes,” “investment,” “charity contributions,” “home and automobile repairs,” “loans and mortgages,” “health, funeral, and life insurance,” “health remedies,” “travel,” “confidence games,” “telemarketing,” “mail,” and “face-to-face contact.” Financial exploitation by relatives and caregivers can occur through “joint bank accounts,” “deed or title transfer,” “power of attorney and durable power of attorney,” and “living trust and will.” The crime techniques adopted by offenders differ between the two main categories and vary slightly according to the types of crime within each main category (Johnson, 2004). In most cases of financial fraud against older citizens, although the perpetrator and victim are not relatives or family members, they are not completely strangers to each other. Often, the perpetrator will make several business or social contacts with the potential victim to develop a sense of trust. A survey based on a sample of 1,246 adults in the Unites States indicated that financial fraud was more likely to be successful if the victim and perpetrator knew each other (Titus et al., 1995). Clearly, in these cases, the offenders take advantage of their bond with the victims (Johnson, 2004).

Based on the scam techniques observed in the United States, Shadel (2012) divided financial fraud into several categories: (a) scams exploiting faith (i.e., abusing the religious background of the victim), (b) scams exploiting fear (i.e., taking advantage of the victim’s fear of the depreciation of property value), (c) scams exploiting boredom (i.e., taking advantage of the victim’s need for excitement), (d) scams exploiting the victim’s “American Dream” (i.e., making use of the victim’s drive for investment), (e) scams exploiting hope (i.e., making use of the victim’s hope to win a fortune), and (f) scams exploiting credit (i.e., abusing the victim’s negligence in handling personal data). It is worth exploring whether these types of scams are prevalent in Chinese society.

In this study, Cohen and Felson’s (1979) daily routine activity approach was used to gain insights into financial fraud committed against older citizens. According to this approach, crime occurs when there is a convergence of three minimum elements in regard to time and space, namely, a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian against crime (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Changes in people’s daily routines can influence the convergence of these three elements and the occurrence of crimes (Felson, 1998). With reference to the U.S. social context, Cohen and Felson argued that macro-level changes in people’s routine activities since the 1960s have led to the increased availability of suitable targets and a decrease in the presence of capable guardians, and have thereby resulted in higher crime rates. This theory has been widely adopted to explain the various victimisation risks of the elderly (e.g., Kennedy & Silverman, 1990; Kmietowicz, 2003; Nelson & Huff-Corzine, 1998; Payne & Gainey, 2006; Pratt, Holtfreter, & Reisig, 2010; Setterlund, Tilse, Wilson, Mccawley, & Rosenman, 2007). However, most of these studies relied on quantitative data and did not adequately articulate the process through which particular societal features allow for the convergence of the key elements. That is, the existing research has rarely taken the social context, including the culture and values of a specific society, into account. The present study is intended to fill this void.

Data and Method

Participants

Focus groups are commonly used to collect stakeholders’ views on particular types of social problems, such as youth violence (Payne & Button, 2009) and sex offenders (Severson & Pettus-Davis, 2013), and to generate insights into the corresponding policies and practices. The participants in this study were 45 community stakeholders (23 males and 22 females) from new town and urban areas who had designated roles in serving older people or preventing financial fraud crime. As the 45 participants served as protectors at the private, local, criminal justice, and health and social service professional levels, they offered unique perspectives and could contribute to the contextual variety of the findings. The focus group participants comprised eight caregivers, seven social workers working in District Elderly Centers, eleven police officers in crime prevention units, five community leaders serving in the District Fight Crime Committees, nine nurses working in geriatric units, and five bank/insurance personnel with experience in implementing financial fraud prevention measures. All of the participants were recruited through the units/committees to which they are attached (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Focus Group Participants and the Frequency of Each Theme Appearing in Each Focus Group (N = 45).

	Participants		Count
	n	Sex	Theme 1	Theme 2	Theme 3	Theme 4	Theme 5	Theme 6
Social worker	7	2 Male	4	9	6	3	0	1
		5 Female
Caregiver	8	5 Male	10	7	3	3	0	0
		3 Female
Community leader	5	4 Male	1	7	0	0	1	1
		1 Female
Police officer	11	8 Male	9	8	2	4	2	1
		3 Female
Nurse	9	9 Female	3	6	2	4	0	0
Insurance and banking personnel	5	4 Male	1	2	0	1	0	0
		1 Female

Note. Theme 1 = Description of perpetrators; Theme 2 = Description of victims; Theme 3 = Social conditions: Traditional Chinese norms and ideologies; Theme 4 = Social conditions: Cross-border activities; Theme 5 = Social conditions: Advancement of technology; Theme 6 = Social conditions: Economic situation.

Procedure and Protocol

The first author, accompanied by a research assistant, conducted six focus group discussions in a conference room at a local institution during the summer of 2013. Prior to this study, a pilot meeting was held with related professionals, including a legal practitioner, two police officers, a social worker, a nurse, and a member of the District Fight Crime Committee, at the beginning of 2013. Their responses helped to generate a picture of the public concern about financial fraud against older persons. Their responses with regard to factors such as financial fraud techniques, the connection between financial fraud and cross-border activities, Chinese culture and values, technological advancement, and socio-economic circumstances formed the major themes of data collection and analysis for the focus group study. The focus group approach enables the researcher to freely explore and probe issues using open-ended questions and group discussions, and thereby helps extract detailed perspectives that would be less accessible through other research methods (Asbury, 1995; Linhorst, 2002; Patton, 1990). The aim of the focus groups was to capture the attitudes and values of different stakeholders in relation to this under-investigated topic.

This study was approved by the Research Committee of the City University of Hong Kong. Prior verbal and written consent was obtained from the participants, who were subsequently briefed on the background, possible risks, and data collection procedures of the study, and the measures for protecting their identities. Each focus group lasted for roughly 2 hours and was conducted primarily in Cantonese. The interview process was interactive and collaborative. The interviewers used a one-page interview guide based on the theoretical framework of this study. The participants were invited to offer their own views in response to the following questions:

How do you perceive financial fraud against elderly people in Hong Kong (e.g., definition, prevalence, and trends)?

What are the characteristics and facilitating factors of financial fraud against elderly people?

What are the characteristics of scammers and elderly victims? Can elderly people in Hong Kong obtain adequate protection from the attacks of scammers?

How can individuals/stakeholders respond to this problem in Hong Kong?

Analysis Strategy

All of the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed in Chinese. The quotations used in the following sections were translated verbatim from Chinese into English with several grammatical amendments. The first author, who has an interdisciplinary background in social work and criminology, developed the coding framework by creating themes based on items in the interview guide and new categories obtained by reviewing all the scripts.

The second author coded the scripts of the six interviews using the NVivo software package (QSR International, version 10). The first and last authors subsequently confirmed and analysed the data and generated conclusions. The triangulation of codes by different researchers can minimise individual bias and help produce more comprehensive conclusions and perspectives.

Results

The data from the focus groups (i.e., community stakeholders) yield the following themes regarding financial fraud against elderly people:

Perpetrators (sex, age, techniques used)

Victims (sex, vulnerability traits)

Social conditions conducive to financial fraud (traditional Chinese norms and ideologies, increasing cross-border activities, advancement of technology, and economic situation)

Table 1 shows frequency distributions of each theme coded across the six groups. The data indicated that different groups had a good understanding of victim characteristics and that the police officers and caregivers exhibited comparatively more knowledge about perpetrators than other professionals.

Perpetrators

The data support the notion that “anyone can commit crimes” (Felson, 1998). The focus group participants perceived the perpetrators of financial fraud against the elderly as coming from diverse backgrounds. According to the participants, both male and female perpetrators of various ages are found, some of whom are local and some from mainland China. The participants presented various images of perpetrators, ranging from a relative calling from the mainland, to a doctor with magic powers, and to a well-educated and helpful professional. All of these images are tailored to fit the needs of elderly people seeking care, concern, advice, and protection from poor health.

The scam techniques adopted by the fraudsters vary according to the targets. Most of the techniques relate to the daily routines of the victims. For instance, elderly people who stay at home most of the time are accessible to perpetrators who use telephone calls for deception, whereas older citizens with a weak helping network are easily trapped by perpetrators who present a helpful image.

Pretending to be a family member over the phone

Face-to-face contact between perpetrators and victims is no longer necessary to execute financial fraud. It is estimated that US$40 billion is scammed from people over the phone annually in the United States (U.S. House of Representatives, 1993). Similar to the situation in the United States, our study indicates that many perpetrators made phone calls from mainland China. For example,

The criminals called my home and said, “Save me, mom!” Then my mom asked who he was. The criminals would say it’s her son. Then they asked for ransom. Although my mom hung up the phone, the criminals would usually call 2 to 3 times. When I checked the number at home, I found that it was not from HK, but from mainland China. (Nurse)

It is worth noting that for financial fraud to occur, it is not necessary for the perpetrators and victims to have face-to-face contact.

A caring lady friend

The phenomenon of “compensated dating”² is not exclusive to young people. Many older men are believed to have been cheated by close female friends through compensated dating. The victims are mostly elderly people with substantial assets who are single, live alone, and are looking for affection and companionship. Social workers and nurses who regularly visit elderly people’s homes observed that the perpetrators are mostly middle-aged women from the mainland:

This is voluntarily provided by the elderly person. The lady only comes to see him on the day when the government issues the allowance. Actually, the elderly person has taken the lady as his wife already. The elderly person feels proud too, because he can take care of that lady. (Social Worker)

They (the perpetrators) are around 30 to 40 years of age, but neither very young nor beautiful. They are just ordinary women. However, they seduce the elderly and ask them for money every month so that they can use it to purchase drugs. (Nurse)

The feeling of warmth. (Interviewer)

Yes, the elderly usually feel that this person is their friend and they love to take care of her. The elderly’s loneliness is the reason that they get cheated. (Nurse)

According to the focus group participants, this kind of financial crime against elderly people occurs even though the elderly person consents to give money, because the perpetrator is likely to run away and dump the elderly person when the target can no longer pay.

Dishonest salespeople

An elderly participant, who is also a caregiver, described the situation of speed sales that involve dishonest selling techniques. Elderly people who think of themselves as smart consumers often turn out to be the victims of this type of financial fraud. The participant further stated that elderly people are often attracted by the discounts or souvenirs offered by some shops and are then persuaded to buy expired or overpriced products by dishonest salespeople:

The staff of the shop were all very young. There were 15 people in total . . . I have been to one shop and found the toilet paper only costs 1 HKD, the cooking oil also costs 1 HKD, the staff tried to persuade me to buy the stuff but I didn’t. (Caregiver)

Magic doctor

Given their belief in supernatural powers, many Chinese are easily deluded by blessing fraud. This type of financial fraud is mostly organised by perpetrators who are good at pretending to be mysterious, knowledgeable, and caring doctors. They are often good at picking potential victims who have health problems and can easily be deceived. A police officer described a typical case:

One case happened recently. As one victim walked over, the two female criminals asked, “Do you know where the magical doctor is?” Then the criminals told the victim that his face looked unhealthy. Later, one woman appeared as the magical doctor’s granddaughter, who claimed to know where the magical doctor was. Then they were taken to a place, either a park or somewhere else, where the criminals asked the victims to take out all of their money to pray for them. (Police officer)

Enthusiastic helping person

Elderly people who live alone may find it difficult to get assistance. Motivated offenders exploit such an opportunity by showing their enthusiasm to help. For example, a perpetrator may help a potential victim in filling out a form to proceed with their application for a cash allowance from the government. These perpetrators tend to win the trust of elderly people by portraying a sincere and helpful image:

There are also different ways for the elderly to get cheated. For example, in the 6,000 HKD scheme, anyone who is more than 18 years is eligible for a 6,000 HKD (this year) government subsidy. The criminals call the elderly and ask about their conditions, then they claim they can help to take the 6,000 HKD on behalf of elderly. They claim the money will be transferred into elderly people’s account. (Caregiver)

You mean when the form is filled in? (Interviewer)

Yes, the criminals fill in the form for the elderly, but with their own account names and numbers. (Caregiver)

The above examples clearly show that the perpetrators vary in terms of gender, age, fraud techniques, and image presented. An increasing trend of scammers from mainland China was also reported. These perpetrators take advantage of the vulnerability and trust of elderly people through their feigned sincerity and concern. Some organised groups also conduct financial fraud.

Victims

Studies conducted in Western countries have shown that elderly people who tend to trust others, are isolated and lonely, accessible, with declining physical health and mental acuity, and in possession of assets are highly vulnerable to fraud (cited in Sharpe, 2004, pp. 11-13). The extent to which these factors apply to Chinese seniors remains unclear. However, the descriptions provided by the focus group participants can help address this issue.

Elderly with weak family support

The focus group participants supported the view that elderly people who do not have regular contact with relatives and family members find it difficult to seek opinions or suggestions from others in solving day-to-day problems, including handling prospective investments or financial affairs:

Nowadays, some elderly live alone. Their children do not visit them often and their relationship is quite distant. Some children only visit during holidays or Festivals. When one becomes older and older, he/she can’t hear clearly anymore. When in urgent contexts they hear that their children are in trouble, they do not hesitate to rush and usually believe in it, so they easily become victims of fraud. (Nurse 1)

Ordinary young people work outside and earn money during daytime, so the elderly stays at home alone. Sometimes they might go to walk and talk with others on the street. The elderly usually trust others and are not that rich, so they carry not much cash with them. If they get cheated, usually it is for no more than a thousand HK dollars, maybe a couple of hundreds, not too much to lose. (Nurse 2)

Socially inactive elderly

During the focus group meetings, the different stakeholders agreed that isolated elderly people have always been the most attractive targets for scammers. If an elderly person seldom goes out to participate in community activities and make friends, he or she will gradually become isolated from community support. Thus, there will be less chance for him or her to obtain information to help eliminate the risk of crime. Moreover, if they stay at home all the time, they are more likely to encounter telephone deception. Typical examples of the participants’ responses include the following:

In the Sham Shui Po District, I believe that there are more elderly people and people who live within lower classes of society. There are also more elderly people who live by themselves. I believe that the condition of fraudulence against elderly is pretty serious. Particularly, elderly people who live alone and who seldom participate in community center activities get cheated more easily. (Community Leader)

There are too many hidden elderly people and most of them cannot obtain social workers’ attention or other social resources. For example, they neither watch television nor listen to police news. They don’t even pay for their electricity or listen to the radio. (Nurse)

Elderly people with declining health

A U.S.-based study found that older people with lower levels of cognitive function, lower psychological well-being, and poorer health appeared to be the most susceptible to scams (James et al., 2014). The focus group participants in this study made similar observations. Furthermore, the participants indicated that the declining health of elderly people makes it difficult for some to perform simple household chores. When a friendly stranger offers to do such household work, elderly people find it very difficult to resist. However, this situation also provides an opportunity for scam artists. For example,

Cases are found where culprits focus on certain types of elderly people, such as the ones with poor intelligence or weak physical condition. The elderly person becomes very dependent on the assistance of others. For example, if an elderly person needs a wheelchair and has some neighbours or immoral friends who take advantage of the situation, then the condition of the elderly person worsens. (Social Worker)

In the banking industry, the term “Disabled Clients” refers to people with visual disabilities and elderly people. The banks provide relevant training to their staff to assist these clients. For example, case sharing on the reason for sudden withdrawals of large amounts of money by elderly people is studied to provide regulations that allow them to provide identification documents with their valid signature. (Community Leader)

Elderly people who keep their cash at home

Older people usually have some savings and most of them have a habit of keeping cash or jewellery at home, which presents an opportunity for scam artists. A community leader described what he observed:

Elderly people usually have assets ranging from 80,000 to 100,000 HKD that they would rather put the cash away in biscuit cans than save it in the bank. I have seen many situations similar to this: when you ask the elderly to provide certain certificates or identifying documents for convenience at work, they take them out from biscuits cans where they also keep other valuable things, including gold bars. (Community Leader)

Elderly people with greedy personalities

A greedy personality can also put elderly individuals at risk of being victimised by financial fraud. Scam artists commonly favour trapping suitable targets, which include seniors, and luring them to partake in fraudulent activities such as dishonest salesmanship by offering them benefits:

In the long run, we also need to start educating citizens when they are still young and instils the idea that “greediness leads to poverty.” This saying is old and is often mentioned. (Community Leader)

Elderly people who show off what they have

Elderly people understandably feel proud of the economic success of their children and take pleasure in sharing their gratitude and joy with others. However, they may not be aware that their “sharing” of family stories may attract the attention of motivated offenders. A bank employee articulated this point:

Individual behaviour is also very important. Many elderly take pleasure in showing off the things that they possess, their children’s fortunes, their relationship with their children, their allowance money, and the places where their children take them for entertainment. These things elicit unnecessary attention from motivated offenders. (Bank personnel)

Elderly people who have children

The focus group participants observed that female seniors are more susceptible to financial fraud than male seniors because of their maternal instincts and concern for their children. For example,

Within the last year, more female victims were treated. Most of these cases claimed that the sons of the victims were held as hostages and the victims then showed the instinctive care of a mother. They did not care about anything else other than the fact that their sons might get hurt. (Nurse)

It is understandable that parents’ concerns over their children can lead them to be easily abused by the perpetrators of financial fraud.

Religious elderly people

Elderly religious people can be easily victimised by confidence artists. In the United States, for example, religious scams are a common type of financial fraud committed against elderly people. A typical case is the members/victims of the Globadine Ministries church who invested more than US$450 million in the sham Faith Promise Plan (Shadel, 2012). In a focus group meeting, a caregiver expressed her concern about the situation in Hong Kong:

Today, an increasing number of people are cheated. Some women who are addicted to religious beliefs are cheated out of hundreds or thousands of dollars by criminals who claim that investing in religion could make the women happy. Is this worth believing in? (Caregiver)

Exploiting people’s faith is obviously a common technique adopted by financial fraud perpetrators in both Chinese and Western society.

Elderly people who are not conscious of their privacy

Comparatively, elderly people are more trusting of others and pay less attention to personal privacy issues than younger people. Therefore, the elderly often release their personal information to sales personnel at promotion counters on the street. However, they may not be aware that there may be scam artists among the other pedestrians who are ready to collect their personal information by listening into their conversations with the sales personnel. For example, a social worker stated,

The younger generation strictly keep their privacy, but the elderly keep their contacts and let others know about them. They have fewer reservations about privacy, as they do not comprehend the idea of using the information of others. (Social Worker)

Unsuitable target

The participants perceived the better-educated to be unsuitable targets for financial fraud because they are more likely to be informed about scams by reading the newspaper, visiting online platforms, and watching TV programmes:

Elderly people who have received better education and have a higher intellectual level are at a lower risk of being cheated. Alternatively, they at least have the consciousness to ask and understand the risk. For example, they become inquisitive before they act on a phone call that they have received or when they are asked to do something. In addition, elderly people who are more intelligent learn about protection against fraudulent acts from the media, which include television and newspaper. (Community Leader)

It is clear from the above statements that personal characteristics such as weak family support, an inactive social life, declining health, keeping cash at home, maternal concerns, and being religious make elderly people attractive to motivated perpetrators. These characteristics seem to be valid across the U.S. and Chinese society. The data also confirm that although both genders are suitable targets of financial fraud, they tend to be cheated in different ways by the perpetrators according to their different concerns and circumstances.

Social Context and Criminal Opportunities

The daily routine perspective assumes that societal circumstances facilitate the convergence of motivated offenders, vulnerable victims, and incapable guardians, and that this convergence leads to the occurrence of crime. As concluded from the focus group meetings, the social context of Hong Kong may offer some opportunities for financial fraud. Specifically, the traditional Chinese beliefs among the elderly, the increasing cross-border activities between the mainland cities and Hong Kong, and the socio-economic situation in Hong Kong may give rise to fraudulent activities.

Traditional Chinese norms and ideologies: Sacred presence

Owing to the belief in “the sacred presence,” the everyday lives of some Hong Kong Chinese are filled with superstition and folk beliefs (Chan & Lee, 1995). In this case, elderly people tend to be the targets of financial fraud because they believe they will have good fortune through charity and that the supernatural power will help them solve their day-to-day problems. Some offenders may ask the elderly to donate money for charitable and religious causes. The text below describes a case in which a caregiver found that her mother, as a result of group pressure, frequently donated money to a suspicious religious group:

My mom has a relative who runs a private Buddhist temple and she would go there every Sunday with many things on her. However, mobile phones are forbidden in the temple, so I cannot contact my mom. Later, I learned through her friends that she always donates to the temple. I then checked her bank account and found 20,000 HKD missing. I asked mom for the reason for the excessive donation and she told me that all of the people in the temple did the same. She also said that the temple hopes to expand its coverage and that a person once wrote a million-dollar check. Therefore, my mom then felt pressured and donated 10,000 HKD. (Caregiver)

Traditional Chinese norms and ideologies: Face-saving ideology

The concept of “face” is recognised in all societies (Goffman, 1955). China is no exception. In Chinese society, to have mien-tzu (face) means that “the individual has achieved a position of honour in the society” (Chan, 2006, p. 66). Older people enjoy a high social status and respect from others, and they are sensitive toward their social image and avoid encountering face-losing situations. Accordingly, older citizens are less likely to report fraudulent activities because they are ashamed of having been scammed and are concerned that their family members will conclude that they no longer have the mental capacity to take care of their own financial affairs. This sort of denial increases the risk of financial fraud among elderly people. For example, a group of nurses stated,

When I asked my Mom whether these [health] products are effective, she told me, “yes.” However, she stopped using them after a while. When I asked again, she then admitted that it was about the face-saving ideology. (Nurse 1)

What problems would the face-saving consideration cause? (Interviewer)

This consideration will not only make you feel embarrassed, but it will also make you reluctant to admit that you have been cheated. This situation is very common. (Nurse 1)

This consideration will also result in elderly people who are afraid that they will be scolded by their children. (Nurse 2)

Very often, because of the face-saving concern of many elderly people, they do not tell others even after they have been cheated by the Blessing Fraud. These elderly people tell us, “We are very smart, how can we be cheated?” When we visited them, we learnt that many of them had been cheated. (Social Worker)

Traditional Chinese norms and ideologies: Mutual support and kinship

Through the influence of Confucianism, which emphasises “social harmony” and “kinship,” the members of extended families are “expected to help one another; [if] one’s own resource fail, relatives are the persons that one might turn for help, before friends, voluntary associations, or government agencies” (Chan & Lee, 1995, p. 94). The majority of older citizens in Hong Kong migrated from mainland China in the 1940s and many continue to keep in touch with their relatives and kinsmen from other provinces in the mainland. The focus group discussions showed that many elderly people still recognise the obligation to take care of people from their hometown. Scam artists often take advantage of elderly citizens who maintain this virtue. A police officer described a relevant case:

Recently, the trend in the Northern New Territories is “Guess who I am.” Numerous times, criminals succeed in convincing victims that they are friends from their hometown. Afterward, criminals try to form a closer relationship with the victims and let them feel, “It does not matter. He is from my hometown, and I have to help him with my money.” (Police Officer)

In addition, elderly people will have no reservations in listening to someone who speaks the same dialect and has a kinship connection. For example,

Sometimes, elderly people need someone who will listen to them. For example, one elderly person mainly speaks Shanghainese and Mandarin, thus few of his friends can communicate with him. In this circumstance, he conversed with somebody more frequently, until he told us that “Somebody took my money.” However, he did not seem to mind. (Social Worker)

Increased number of cross-border activities: The import of new crime techniques by mainland visitors

The cross-border contact between Hong Kong citizens and mainlanders has become more frequent. For example, in 2013, 54 million visitors entered Hong Kong, 40.7 million of whom were from mainland China, accounting for 75% of the total arrivals. In 2012, the visiting population from mainland China increased by 16.7% (Hong Kong Tourism Commission, 2013). Moreover, the number of cross-border marriages increased from 8,701 in 2002 to 21,860 in 2012 (Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2013). The focus group members generally believed that increasing cross-border contact may increase the risk of financial fraud among Hong Kong people (including older citizens) through the following ways.

First, it was observed that scam artists from mainland China import new crime techniques. A caregiver stated that

the rise in the exchanges and communications between China and Hong Kong result in an increase in crime rate. Fraudulent activities that include the Magical Medicine Fraud and the Blessing Fraud, which did not exist before, have thrived in the past eight to ten years. (Caregiver)

Second, elderly men are often deceived into entering into cross-border marriages with young women from mainland China. In some cases, paid marriages are arranged by criminal syndicates with local, single elderly men as a way for women to acquire Hong Kong citizenship. However, some cases show that the elderly men are deceived and left by their young wives after paying for the marriage. A nurse stated,

Recently, a case about one lady and her daughter states how they were cut dead by her boyfriend, do you remember? That lady came from the Mainland and she dated an elderly person. Afterwards, the elderly person filed a fake marriage with her, but we do not know if it was real or not. However, somebody is taking care of the elderly person when he grows old and someone will provide him with food and a place to stay. The elderly person thinks that the fake marriage might be a worthwhile arrangement that can work for both the lady and himself. (Nurse)

Third, along with the development of the cross-border economy, the flow of money between the mainland and Hong Kong has become more flexible. As a result, scam artists are able to perform fraudulent activities, such as withdrawing money from the account of a victim in Hong Kong through a bank located in the mainland. A bank employee described this situation:

I think that a social factor also figures here. As the communication between the mainland and Hong Kong has become more frequent, the criminals have also changed their tactics. They can withdraw money from the mainland. (Bank Personnel)

Do you mean that they can withdraw the money that they have stolen through an ATM in the mainland? (Interviewer)

Yes, or criminals may withdraw over-the-counter in the bank. Perhaps this activity is caused by a closer relationship between China and Hong Kong; it used to be the case where money was taken by metal cans. When it comes to banking, tactics also vary. (Bank Personnel)

The above examples support the assumption of the routine activity approach in that financial fraud becomes more possible when the convergence of suitable targets (older citizens) and motivated offenders from the mainland is facilitated by the increasing cross-border activities. Nevertheless, in the case of financial fraud against older persons, their convergence does not necessarily rely on face-to-face contact. Instead, contact over the phone can lead to financial fraud.

Technological advancement and the digital divide

Hong Kong is a fast-paced city that emphasises efficiency. In recent decades, banks have undergone computerisation and have installed as many ATMs as possible and reduced the number of service counters. However, the majority of elderly people are not used to managing their accounts through an ATM. Therefore, they prefer to keep their cash at home, which makes them an attractive target for financial fraud. In addition, the number of cell phone users is rapidly expanding. The increasing use of cell phones among elderly people also increases their likelihood of encountering motivated offenders. A community leader and police officer expressed concern over the increased vulnerability of the elderly as a result of the recent technological advancements:

Banks reduce their cost through technologies such as the ATM, which affects elderly people as they might need to line up at the bank and it will take them a long time to finish. Some elderly people do not know how to withdraw money from the ATM. Therefore, they keep large amounts of money at home. (Community Leader)

Internet and telephone fraud are also becoming a trend. Take me for example. I am using the same computer, but the person who is sitting right across me might not know what I’m doing. Perhaps we all take the same bus, but if I am doing something illegal, then no one would even know. In addition, mobile phones are also becoming commonplace. (Police Officer)

Unfavourable economic situations

As a result of the Asian financial turmoil and Hong Kong’s earlier economic uncertainty, senior citizens are determined to avoid being a financial burden to their children and eagerly look for ways to supplement their pensions after retirement. Therefore, fraudulent schemes have become more tempting to elderly people. A social worker offered the following explanation:

The previous generation has the ability to save money. On the contrary, the current elderly generation has a weaker ability to save. They are often cheated out of the things that they have worked for before they become old. For example, after the financial crisis, many children asked their parents for help, and many real estate owners may have taken advantage of them. I believe the parents do have certain savings, otherwise, their children would not go to them. (Social Worker)

Discussion

This study has provided an overview of the financial fraud committed against elderly people in Chinese society. The results have a number of theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, the responses collected from the focus groups not only support the core assumption of the routine activity approach, but also extend its key concepts.

First, the data indicate that financial fraud requires not only a motivated offender but also a “capable offender.” The scam techniques, which range from pretending and mind-reading to empathic communication, are viewed as fundamental to the likelihood of financial fraud occurring. Based on his observations in the United States, Shadel (2012) described financial fraud as an act that exploits the fear, faith, hope, credit, and boredom of victims. Financial fraud is perpetrated at different stages and specific skills are required at each stage. The data show that the scam techniques used against the elderly are similar across Chinese and Western society, largely because the psychological needs of elderly people are universal and can be easily abused in any society.

Second, previous studies on financial fraud have shown that targeting mostly depends on the socio-demographic characteristics of the victim, such as gender, age, education, and economic status. Nevertheless, Pratt et al. (2010) commented that “it is simply not enough to focus on demographics while ignoring criminologically informed indicators” (p. 283). The data collected in this study add two new dimensions, personality traits and behaviour, to the suitable targets of financial fraud, such as having a greedy personality, a lack of awareness about personal privacy, being religious, and being keen to show off one’s wealth. These findings also have implications for prevention. Specifically, it is more feasible for individuals to change their behaviour than their social or demographic background.

Third, the routine activity approach posits that a crime can only happen with the convergence of the offender, victim, and the lack of a capable guardian. This study extends our understanding of “convergence” in that it does not necessarily require face-to-face contact. McCawley, Tilse, Wilson, Rosenman, and Setterlund (2006) proposed that financial crime can be perpetrated remotely. In this study, it was found that in the case of telephone deception, the perpetrator and the victim can be connected through long distance calls.

Fourth, the data collected in this study demonstrate how the connection between the macro and micro characteristics of a society can give rise to increased opportunities for financial fraud. The prevalence of Chinese traditional norms and ideologies among the elderly population, increasing cross-border activities, and technological advancement have increased the possibility of the convergence of scam perpetrators and elderly victims. As these factors are coupled with inadequate protection, the likelihood of the elderly being victims of financial fraud can be seen to have increased.

Changing the social structure and reducing the risk of crime within a short period of time is hardly possible. Corresponding measures, such as strengthening the level of guardianship, imposing tighter control by handlers, and implementing proper practices by place managers (Clarke & Eck, 2005), are worth considering. Empowering the elderly at an individual level is also advisable (Payne, 2011). Multiple levels of intervention to tackle financial fraud by strangers and non-strangers are suggested in Table 2.

Table 2.

Multiple-Level Interventions for Preventing Financial Fraud Against Elderly People.

Agent of intervention	Financial fraud committed by strangers	Financial fraud committed by non-strangers
Guardian	Improved guardian by familyNeighbourhood watch	Social workersCommunity nurses/medical doctor
	Improved guardian by familyNeighbourhood watch	Social workersCommunity nurses/medical doctor
	Safety alarm/mobile services
Handler	Police	Family members
	Moral education	Guardianship ordinance
Place manager	Bank	Bank
	Insurance agent	Insurance agent
	Security guard
Older citizens	Knowledge about preventing financial fraud	Knowledge of preventing financial fraud
	Proper financial management	Target hardening techniques, including wearing fake jewellery
	Strengthened social support network
	Senior police call

First, the family plays an essential role in guarding elderly people. It is clear from this study that elderly people with weak family support are vulnerable to financial fraud. Thus, further effort is needed to encourage people to provide better protection of their elderly family members. Chinese society has inherited the Confucian norms of loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and righteousness (e.g., Tiwari et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 1997), and these norms have made the family the core of the life of the individual (Xu et al., 2007). Therefore, the traditional rules regarding family support could be reemphasised, such as the responsibility of parents to their children, the responsibility of adult children to their parents, and harmonious family relationships (Zhang et al., 1997). Offspring should speak openly with their older parents if they have concerns about financial fraud (Payne, 2011). Seniors without children or any other family members can alternatively be taken care by neighbours or the private sector. For example, the Hong Kong Safety Service Association provides a variety of paid home safety plans³ for their customers, such as safety alarms and a safe mobile service.

Second, the authorities should exert greater control over motivated offenders. Specifically, dealing with the risks resulting from the increasing cross-border activities between Hong Kong and mainland China is of prime importance. The activities of cross-border fraud syndicates should be carefully monitored by the police. Regular foot patrols in hot spots, which include places where elderly people congregate, would help deter motivated offenders. In addition, social workers and community nurses may need to educate single seniors on how to conduct their social lives. For example, they may educate seniors on how to avoid new friends who may have immoral intentions. If necessary, family members and relatives should be reminded to monitor their elder family members. In Hong Kong, the Guardianship Board⁴ has the power, through the Guardianship Order, to assign a person to look after the property of another who is incapable of managing his or her own financial matters. Guardianship Orders can help deter family members or relatives who wish to take advantage of mentally impaired seniors. Apart from legislative measures, research has shown that public morality is related to the crime rate in Chinese society (Cao, 2007). Therefore, raising the moral standard of the general public, especially with regard to their respect for seniors, may help prevent instances of financial fraud against elderly people.

Third, the managers who are responsible for regulating the behaviour of elderly people in specific locations are assumed to aid in crime prevention. In particular, the community should pay attention to the digital divide that is confronting the aging population. The digital divide is defined as the gap between people who have access to computers and the Internet and those who do not. The elderly are socially disadvantaged with respect to the digital divide (Lam & Lee, 2005). In general, IT can increase the quality of life of elderly people by reducing their social isolation (e.g., Czaja & Lee, 2007; Mitzner et al., 2010). To eliminate the possible negative consequences of the digital divide for elderly people, banks should also implement measures to create a user-friendly environment for their elderly customers, for example, by introducing more service counters for the elderly alongside the computerisation of banking procedures. Unfriendly banking procedures may only encourage seniors to keep their cash at home rather than putting it in their bank accounts. The majority of banks have standing procedures and guidelines for their staff for handling suspected cases of financial fraud against elderly customers. Insurance companies in Hong Kong have also implemented effective practices to prevent elderly clients from being financially exploited by their non-married friends.⁵

Fourth, the data collected in this study indicate that new financial fraud techniques are continually emerging. Therefore, it is crucial to keep elderly people informed of the latest financial fraud techniques. Many older victims may not realise that they are being subjected to financial abuse (Wilber & Reynolds, 1996). Therefore, elderly people should be educated so that they are aware of this kind of abuse. They should also be informed about the latest fraudulent techniques that are adopted by mainland confidence artists or Internet fraudsters through various channels such as community education programmes and the mass media. Skills training on handling confidence artists, the use of property managers, and the formation of mutual support groups for elderly people are also feasible measures for countering financial fraud against elderly people. A new community crime prevention initiative, called the “senior police call,” was recently implemented in Hong Kong. In this case, older citizens serve as the eyes and ears of the police and take an active role in various crime prevention programmes, such as conveying financial fraud prevention messages to the community through drama performance. In addition, measures should be taken to enhance older people’s financial literacy by providing assistance to help them make informed judgments and to take effective action with regard to the current and future use and management of their savings and other assets (McCallion, Ferretti, & Park, 2013).

Conclusion

This study provides one of the first assessments of the current features of the financial fraud committed against elderly people in Hong Kong and connects these features with recent societal changes in the Chinese city with reference to the routine activity approach. The data collected in this study have a number of conceptual and practical implications. Conceptually, this study helps to explain the processes through which societal characteristics shape the daily routines of older people and weaken the guardian in a given society. This study also offers some practical alternatives for protecting older citizens in Hong Kong from financial fraud.

Despite the aforementioned potential contributions, this study has three possible limitations that should be noted, together with some suggestions for improvement. First, given the exploratory nature and limited sample size (N = 45) of this study, it is questionable whether the findings are generalisable to other Chinese societies, for example, Taiwan or mainland China. Comparison of the results with observations from other Chinese societies would help broaden the relevance of the findings. Second, the scope of this study is limited to cases of financial fraud that occur in the community rather than in settings such as nursing homes, where nursing home staff can easily exploit their elderly residents financially. Third, the majority of the cases that were identified by the stakeholders were committed through secondary contacts; the offenders were salespeople, telemarketers, home repair technicians, and other contacts (Payne, 2011). Financial fraud cases committed by primary contacts, in which the offenders are family members and relatives, were not covered in this inquiry. Future research is needed to address this gap.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors are very thankful to Ivan Sun and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable and thoughtful comments made on the earlier version of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research project was supported by a grant awarded by the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (Project No. CityU1013-PPR12).

Notes

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