When Domains Spill Over: The Relationships of Work–Family Conflict With Indian Police Affective and Continuance Commitment

Abstract

Policing is a stressful occupation that may give rise to work–family conflict (WFC). WFC arises when the work domain encroaches into the family domain, or vice versa, causing officers to become less attached to their job and the police organization. Using survey data collected from a sample of police officers in India, we examined the relationship between four dimensions of WFC (time-based, strain-based, behavior-based, and family-based WFC) and two dimensions of organizational commitment (continuance and affective). Family-based WFC was found to reduce continuance commitment, while strain-based WFC reduced affective commitment. Time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based WFC increased continuance commitment. We examined the implications of these findings for police policy makers and administrators. In addition, we also discussed our findings in the context of cross-cultural comparisons.

Keywords

India police law enforcement work–family conflict organizational commitment affective commitment continuance commitment

Work and home are the two major domains for working adults (Grzywacz & Butler, 2008). For some, these domains are in balance, and for others they are not. When work and home domains conflict, work–family conflict (WFC) results (O’Driscoll, Brough, & Kalliath, 2006). WFC is bidirectional, in that problems at work can cause conflict at home and problems at home can spill over and result in conflict at work (Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996). WFC is a possibility in many occupations, including policing (Burke, 1988; Mikkelsen & Burke, 2004). First, WFC can result because of demands on time, as officers are needed to work shifts every day of the year, including holidays, and can be called in on days off to handle emergencies. Second, officers can be required to intervene in stressful situations, to deal with antagonistic people, and to witness the aftermath of accidents and crimes that sometimes result in substantial injuries and death; these work experiences cannot just be turned off when they go home. Third, officer behavioral roles differ between work and home. Fourth, officers can experience problems at home involving family members, and it is likely that sometimes home issues can follow officers to work, causing interference with their ability to perform their job satisfactorily (Burke, 1988; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, Keena, & Hogan, 2017; Mikkelsen & Burke, 2004).

Even though WFC can be an issue for police, there has been limited research to date on police regarding how WFC affects officers (He, Zhao, & Archbold, 2002; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017; Morash, Kwak, & Haarr, 2006). One particular area that has suffered from a lack of research attention is organizational commitment (Lambert et al., 2015; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). Organizational commitment is a multidimensional concept, and the dimensions differ on how the bond between the employee and the organization forms (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993; Meyer, Morin, & Vandenberghe, 2015). The two major organizational commitment dimensions identified as empirically distinct in the literature are affective and continuance commitment (N. J. Allen & Meyer, 1990; Meyer et al., 2015). Affective commitment is a psychological attachment (bond) formed through feelings of loyalty and pride toward an organization (N. J. Allen & Meyer, 1990; Lambert, Hogan, Kelley, Kim, & Garland, 2014; Meyer et al., 2015). Continuance commitment is a bond that forms because of investments (e.g., salary, position, pension, etc.) formed with the employing organization (N. J. Allen & Meyer, 1990; Lambert, Hogan, et al., 2014; Meyer et al., 2015). The current study examines how WFC is associated with these two forms of organizational commitment among Indian police officers.

The research to date on WFC has mainly focused on officers in developed, particularly Western, nations (Buker & Dolu, 2010; Lambert, Qureshi, Klahm, Smith, & Frank, 2017). The effects of WFC may not be universal but instead may be contextual, varying across cultures (T. D. Allen, French, Dumani, & Shockley, 2015). To uncover possible variances and outcomes of workplace stressors on organizational commitment, research from different countries, especially nonwestern countries, is critical. Given the growing movement to improve and democratize police across the globe and the role the United States plays in this movement, it is important to understand whether the current state of knowledge derived from organizations in the United States is applicable to policing in developing nations (Bayley, 2005). Bennett (1997) noted that “most police forces in the developing world operate with very limited financial and personnel resources, so they must understand how to use those resources most effectively and efficiently” (p. 296). The current study examined the possible relationships of four different types of WFC (time-based conflict, strain-based conflict, behavior-based conflict, and family-on-work conflict) with affective and continuance commitment among Indian police officers from a district in the State of Haryana. India is the world’s most populous democracy and the second largest populated nation with 1.3 billion people; it is a dynamic developing nation taking a more prominent role on the world stage (Unnithan, 2009). Still, little empirical research has been published involving Indian police.

The relationship between organizational commitment and WFC is important for all police organizations, but especially in developing countries. India, for instance, has a society fractured by numerous caste, religious, language, and cultural groups. The commitment of a police officer to each of these groups is often pitted against their commitment to the police organization and the rule of law. The current study contributes to our understanding of the relationship between WFC and organizational commitment.

Literature Review

Brief overviews of the Indian police generally and the Haryana police specifically are provided to place the current study and its findings into context. A more detailed discussion of the concepts of WFC and organizational commitment is given to provide a foundation for understanding these concepts, as well as a presentation of the relevant findings of past studies. A review of these studies helps clarify the knowledge gaps in this important area, including what is known and what remains unknown.

Brief Overview of Indian and Haryana Police

Policing in India dates back over 2,500 years (Lambert, Wu, et al., 2014). The structure and organization of modern policing was heavily influenced by its time under British rule, and especially the Police Act of 1861 (Singh, 2002). Although the central government of India maintains several specialized police agencies called the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs), state governments are largely responsible for law enforcement. Each of the 29 Indian states and the seven Union territories maintain their own law enforcement agencies (Frank, Lambert, & Qureshi, 2017). Each state police agency is headed by a Director General of Police who is responsible for the operation and control of the police in his/her respective state. The state police are further divided into districts, with each district under the direction of a Superintendent of Police. Although the structure of police organization varies across states in India, generally, districts are divided into subdistricts, and subdistricts are further divided into police stations, which are the basic unit of police functioning (Dhillon, 2011; Lambert et al., 2015).

The state governments maintain substantial control through the hiring, training, and deployment of officers (Verma & Gavirneni, 2006). Indian police have demanding jobs, partly because the growth of the police infrastructure has not kept pace with the rapidly increasing urbanization and industrialization in the country. Ranta and Sud (2008) asserted that most Indian police officers are overworked, resulting in long periods away from home. Kaur, Chodagiri, and Reddy (2013) contended that policing is one of the most challenging and stressful occupations in India. Similarly, Tyagi and Dhar (2014) noted that being an Indian police officer is a unique experience that can be trying.

The surveyed officers in the current study worked in a district in the State of Haryana. Haryana is a state in northern India with 25.4 million people living in an area of 17,070 miles. Although it contains about 2% of the total population of India, Haryana’s population density is about 50% higher than the national average (Census 2011, 2015). Haryana is growing both in terms of population and economic development. In the past decade, the population grew by 20%. Haryana is a well-developed state with a 76% literacy rate (Census 2011, 2015; Government of Haryana, 2018).

The Haryana Police are a force of approximately 48,000 officers, and they are deployed across 21 districts (Haryana Police, 2016). District officers are responsible for all policing activities including investigations, patrol, traffic, security of protected persons, and intelligence gathering. Data for the current study was obtained from a single district that employed about 1,500 officers serving a population of slightly over a million. The selected district was divided into 10 police stations (Haryana Police, 2016). The Haryana police have embarked on several innovative programs driven by a professional approach. Haryana police have prepared a citizen’s charter to crystallize its commitment to the service of people. The charter lays down the motto of Haryana police as sewa suraksha sahyog (service, security, and cooperation). It assures residents of impartiality and transparency in the functioning of the police (Menon & Banerjea, 2012). A patrol program with community partnership was recently launched in the Faridabad district (Razdan, 2016). To reduce corruption and to facilitate the delivery of services, an online portal called “Harsamay” was started by Haryana police, where 31 citizen services, including complaint registration, missing property reports, and so on, are available (Sehrawat, 2017).

WFC

WFC occurs when work and home domains collide (T. D. Allen et al., 2015; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Basically, when issues in one domain spill over and cause strain in the other, the result is WFC (Buonocore & Russo, 2013; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017). WFC developed from the role conflict theory proposed in 1964 by Khan, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal. This theory holds that if major roles in a person’s life are not in agreement, strain is likely. Conflict can spill over from work to home or conflict can spill over from home into work (Brough & O’Driscoll, 2005).

Work problems that spill over to home, resulting in conflict, are referred to as work-on-family conflict (T. D. Allen et al., 2015; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017). Work-on-family conflict can be broken down into the dimensions of time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based conflict (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Time-based conflict occurs because of work time requirements, such as shift work, work emergencies, holiday work, and inflexible work schedules, any or all of which can interfere with home life (Byron, 2005; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Work time requirements may not fit the schedules of other family members and can interfere with family interactions and obligations. Furthermore, policing carries the need for unexpected extended shifts because of emergencies, which can result in missing important home events (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017).

Strain-based conflict occurs when conflict at work follows the officer home from work causing decreased family interactions and increased strain (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Negative work situations are likely to cause an officer to become aggravated and to experience negative emotions. Being a police officer can be at times a trying experience, such as witnessing a violent crime against a child, being assaulted by an arrestee, being lectured to by a supervisor, or dealing with an extremely uncooperative and argumentative citizen. The strain from negative work situations is likely to follow the officer home, resulting in increased conflict at home, such as an argument at home or being distant from a loved one (Brough & O’Driscoll, 2005; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017; Senjo, 2011).

Behavior-based conflict occurs when work roles and home roles are incompatible with one another, resulting in conflict (Greenhaus, Allen, & Spector, 2006; Netemeyer et al., 1996). As noted by Greenhaus and Beutell (1985), “specific patterns of in-role behavior may be incompatible with expectations regarding behavior in another role” (p. 81). The work and home roles of police officers are not always compatible with one another, and shutting one role off and switching to another role to fit different domains is not easy for most people. This can result in behavior-based conflict (Brough & O’Driscoll, 2005). The work roles of officers require them to be suspicious, questioning, and sometimes confrontational, while home roles require supportive, nurturing, and open discourse (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017; Mikkelsen & Burke, 2004). These divergent roles do not mix well.

Officers, like many others, can face problems at home, such as arguments with family members, deaths, disruptive behaviors, and other strains. Family-based WFC results when home issues spill over and result in problems at work (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, Klahm, & Smith, 2018; Netemeyer et al., 1996). This conflict might result in psychological strain for an officer, expressing itself in the form of psychological fatigue from the job, treating others as impersonal objects, reduced feelings of work effectiveness, and less commitment to the job (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017).

In the current study, all four types of WFC (i.e., time-based, behavior-based, strain-based, and family-based) were included to determine how they were associated with the continuance and affective dimensions of organizational commitment. Of the limited research to date on WFC, most have used a composite (overall) measure of WFC. Although these past studies are important for showing how WFC affects officers, what is not known is if and how the different types of WFC are associated with continuance and affective commitment. More nuanced research is needed to explore the relationship between different dimensions of WFC and organizational commitment more fully, because the antecedents and consequences of organizational commitment may vary by the dimension of commitment being examined and across nations.

WFC probably occurs among Indian police officers. Indian police work long hours, typically more than 10 hr on their scheduled days, and can be and often are called into work for emergencies or because of the shortage of officers, in the end, raising the likelihood of time-based conflict (Selokar, Nimbarte, Ahana, Gaidhane, & Wagh, 2011). In addition, working long hours, often on scheduled days off, can result in strain-based conflict. In addition, Indian police need to deal with civil conflicts and riots, as well as dealing with criminal acts (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017). Kaur et al. (2013) noted that policing is one of the most challenging and stressful occupations in India. Strain-based conflict is a real possibility of Indian police officers. In addition, behavior-based conflict often occurs among Indian officers. Policing in India requires unique behavior roles not found at home or in other occupations, such as being a nurse or teacher, and the issues of behavior roles across domains can cause strain for Indian officers (Lambert et al., 2018). Finally, family-based conflict can occur. Indian officers encounter normal conflicts and problems that occur at home, such as children testing boundaries and disagreements with spouses (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017).

Organizational Commitment

As a bond formed between the employee and the employing organization (Choi, Oh, & Colbert, 2015; Dick, 2011; Mowday et al., 1982), organizational commitment represents a commitment to the overall organization and not just a subpart, such as a department, work group, or supervisor (Ford, Weissbein, & Plamondon, 2003; Lambert, Hogan, & Jiang, 2008). How the bonds form has resulted in different dimensions of organizational commitment (N. J. Allen & Meyer, 1990; Currie & Dollery, 2006; Jaros, Jermier, Koehler, & Sincich, 1993). Mowday et al. (1982) maintained that the dimensions of organizational commitment can be placed on a behavioral-attitudinal continuum, with continuance commitment on the behavioral end and affective commitment on the attitudinal end (Meyer & Allen, 1984, 1997).

Continuance commitment is an extension of Becker’s (1960) side-bet theory. The side-bet theory holds that workers form investments at work that bind them to the employing organization. Examples of these investments (also referred to as sunken costs or side-bets) are time in the organization, retirement plans, benefits, salary, social connections, prestige, and nontransferable job skills (Carson & Carson, 2002; Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972; Meyer & Allen, 1997). To protect their investments and because the cost of leaving is too high, a person bonds to the organization. Jaros et al. (1993) noted that this form of organizational commitment reflects a sense of being locked in place because of the high costs of leaving. The employee feels compelled to commit to the organization to avoid the costs (monetary, social, psychological, and other costs) associated with leaving. Furthermore, workers bond with the organization because they feel that they must, not because they freely wish to do so.

Affective commitment falls on the attitudinal end of the continuum and results from reciprocity (N. J. Allen & Meyer, 1990). Affective commitment is a positive psychological bond between the worker and the employing organization (Demirtas & Akdogan, 2015; Meyer & Allen, 1997). Core elements of affective commitment include identification with the organization’s values and goals, organizational pride, loyalty and dedication toward the organization, and a willingness to put forth efforts for the organization (Demirtas & Akdogan, 2015; Meyer & Allen, 1997; Mowday et al., 1982). Affective commitment is viewed as forming over time-based on positive treatment by the organization (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). In other words, if the employing organization is viewed as treating a person in a positive manner, he or she is likely to bond psychologically with the organization out of reciprocity (Meyer & Allen, 1997). In contrast, workers who feel they are treated poorly at work are far less likely to form a psychological attachment to the organization. With affective commitment, workers bond with the organization because they elect and desire to do so, not because they feel that they must do so (Carson & Carson, 2002; Meyer & Allen, 1991).

Past Policing Studies

There is a growing body of research that has examined WFC and organizational commitment in policing, but not necessarily how one affects the other. Both the antecedents and consequences of WFC have been explored among police. In terms of antecedents, emotional challenges from the job and work hassles were found to increase WFC for officers in New Zealand and Norway (Brough, 2005; Hall, Dollard, Tuckey, Winefield, & Thompson, 2010; Mikkelsen & Burke, 2004). Studies of Taiwanese and Canadian officers determined that role conflict has been observed to result in greater overall WFC (Burke, 1988; Wu, 2009). Work place resources, such as job autonomy, social support, instrumental communication, organizational fairness, and quality supervision, were reported to be negatively associated with composite measures of WFC and a strain-based WFC measure for Canadian and Indian officers (Buker & Dolu, 2010; Burke, 1988; Lambert, Qureshi, & Frank, 2016).

In terms of consequences, a composite measure of WFC was found to have a positive association with U.S. officer job stress and a negative effect on job satisfaction (He et al., 2002; Howard, Donofrio, & Boles, 2004). Strain-based, behavior-based, and family-based WFC had significant positive effects on Indian officer job stress, while time-based conflict did not (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017). Burke (1988) reported that a composite measure of WFC was linked to increase anger among police in an unnamed nation. Similarly, among Canadian officers, strained-based work conflict was reported to be positively related to greater psychological strain (Janzen, Muhajarine, & Kelly, 2007). A composite WFC variable was negatively related to job satisfaction among Indian officers (Buker & Dolu, 2010). A composite measure of WFC had a positive correlation with job burnout for Australian officers (Hall et al., 2010).

There has also been research examining the antecedents and consequences of officer organizational commitment. Existing research indicates that positive workplace factors, such as job feedback, job autonomy, organizational fairness, input into decision making, quality of work life, job variety, pay satisfaction, promotional opportunities, management support, organizational support, quality supervision, and supervisory support all play a role in helping shape affective commitment among Australian, British, Ghanaian, and U.S. officers (Beck & Wilson, 1997; Brief, Aldag, & Wallden, 1976; Currie & Dollery, 2006; Dick, 2011; Farmer, Beehr, & Love, 2003; Jaramillo, Nixon, & Sams, 2005; Johnson, 2015; Lambert et al., 2015; Morris, Shinn, & DuMont, 1999; Savery, Soutar, & Weaver, 1991; Tankebe, 2010). Work stress, boring job tasks, and work demands were linked to lower affective commitment for British and U.S. officers (Dick, 2011; Martelli, Waters, & Martelli, 1989). Among Indian police officers, organizational support, formalization, promotional opportunities, input into decision making, and instrumental communication had positive associations with affective commitment (Lambert, Qureshi, Klahm, et al., 2017).

Organizational commitment has also been reported to have salient consequences for both officers and their agencies. Affective commitment has been found to be negatively associated with job burnout, turnover intent, engagement in wrongdoing, and cynicism, and positively with greater support for community-oriented policing among Australian, Norwegian, Swiss, and U.S. officers (Ford et al., 2003; Haarr, 1997; James & Hendry, 1991; Manzoni & Eisner, 2006; Martinussen, Richardsen, & Burke, 2007).

Only a few studies have included a measure of continuance commitment in their analyses. Organizational support was a significant predictor of affective commitment but not continuance commitment among Australian police (Currie & Dollery, 2006). Among Indian police officers, continuance commitment played a greater role in explaining job burnout than affective commitment. Specifically, continuance commitment was significantly related to higher levels of the job burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feeling ineffective at work, while affective commitment was significantly related to lower levels of feeling ineffective at work (Lambert et al., 2018). These two studies suggest that the antecedents and consequences of organizational commitment may vary by the dimension of commitment being examined. In a study of law enforcement officers in a large southeastern U.S. state, Trice (2013) found WFC to be negatively related to organizational commitment. Four conclusions can be gleaned from the literature. First, there needs to be more research on police WFC and on organizational commitment. Second, a good deal of the research to date has focused on police in Western and industrialized nations. Third, there has been little research on continuance commitment involving officers. Fourth, no published studies on the association between the four types of WFC and police continuance and affective commitment could be found. Based on a void in the existing literature, the current study adds to the literature by examining the relationships between the four major dimensions of WFC (i.e., time-based, strain-based, behavior-based, and family-based) and the two major dimensions of organizational commitment (i.e., continuance and affective commitment) among Indian police officers.

Hypotheses

This study is grounded in the job strain model (Karasek, 1979). This model explains why different types of WFC would be associated with the major dimensions of organizational commitment for police officers. There are job demands that place a psychological strain on people, and, in turn, increase the chances of negative organizational outcomes (Wong & Laschinger, 2015). Job demands are basically stressors that place increased stress on the person. Under the strain model, job demands that the worker cannot avoid, or has little control over, result in heightened psychological strain, which, in turn, raises the job stress level (Karasek, 1979; Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Policing is an occupation with high demands and little job latitude. The four forms of WFC are possible stressors for officers. For example, officers have reduced control of their work shifts, which can contribute to time-based conflict. Likewise, officers have little control over the types of interactions they encounter and the suspects and citizens they interact with while on patrol, increasing the chances for strain-based conflict. As such, WFC has the potential to have effects on the organizational commitment of Indian police officers.

The four dimensions of WFC were hypothesized to have negative associations with continuance commitment. The strain from the different types of WFC can result in not wanting to stay with the organization. In other words, officers who suffer from different types of WFC are probably more likely to express a lower desire to stay. Officers who suffer from time-based conflict are probably more likely to want to leave to find another job that does not have as many time-based conflicts (Hypothesis 1). Strain-based conflict should result in lower continuance commitment (Hypothesis 2). Likewise, behavior-based conflict may result in officers wanting to find a new job where the home and work behavior roles are more in accordance and, as such, may reduce their level of continuance commitment (Hypothesis 3). Family-on-work conflict can result in problems at work, making work more difficult. This could also reduce the strength of the investments made and their effectiveness over time. Over time, the continuance bonds to the organization could be reduced (Hypothesis 4).

Affective commitment is an employee’s voluntary psychological bond with the employing organization and arises because the person sees the organization as treating him or her in a positive fashion. The time-, strain-, and behavior-based types of WFC can be seen as resulting from the organization, and, in turn, these negative experiences can result in the organization being seen in a more negative light, reducing the level of affective commitment. Officers’ willingness to bond with an organization is likely to be reduced as they try to escape from the strain of WFC. Officers may blame the organization for time-based conflict and wish to escape from it. As such, time-based conflict should reduce affective commitment (Hypothesis 5). Similarly, strain-based conflict is likely to result in psychological strain and officers may hold the organization responsible for this stress, in the end resulting in lower desire to willingly bond with the organization (Hypothesis 6). The organization may be blamed for behavior-based conflict, resulting in a lower affective commitment (Hypothesis 7). Although the conflict flows from home to work, an officer may look at the organization in less favorable light when they suffer from family-on-work conflict. Over time, this form of WFC can erode the level of affective commitment (Hypothesis 8).

Method

Participants

The data were collected using systematic sampling of 500 of the 1,500 police officers in a district of Haryana State of India. Using a roster of all officers assigned to the district, every third officer from the roster received a study packet that contained an informed consent form, a cover letter, the survey, and a return envelope. The cover letter provided information about the study, indicated that participation was voluntary, that there were no rewards for taking the survey nor punishments for not taking the survey, that the officer could stop taking the survey at any time, that any question could be skipped, and that responses would be anonymous and kept confidential. The packet materials were in Hindi, the national language of India. The selected officers received the study packet during roll call and were allowed to take the survey at a time and location of their selection. Completed surveys were returned in an unmarked envelope included in the survey packet. A total of 410 officers returned surveys in the blank envelopes provided, representing a response rate of 82%. In terms of age, gender, post location, tenure, educational level, and position, the officers who responded were similar to the overall complement of officers assigned to the selected district.

Variables

Dependent variables

Continuance and affective organizational commitment were the two dependent variables. Both were measured using items from N. J. Allen and Meyer (1990). The items measuring the two dimensions of organizational commitment are presented in the appendix, along with the response options. Six items were used to measure continuance commitment (Cronbach’s α = .82). Principal axis factor analysis was conducted for the continuance commitment items, and all the items loaded on a single factor, indicating unidimensionality of the concept (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). The factor loading scores for the six items ranged from .69 to .74, which are above the cut-off loading score of .40. The individual factor loading scores are presented in Table 1. The responses to the six items were summed together to form an additive index measuring continuance commitment. Affective commitment was measured using five items that had a Cronbach’s alpha of .89. In a factor analysis, the items loaded on one factor and had factor loading scores ranging from .82 to .88.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics.

Variable	Description	Min	Max	Med	M	SD
Age	Age in years	21	57	34	36.07	8.94
Gender	86% male (coded 1) 14% female (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.86	0.35
Married	85% married (coded 1) 15% not married (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.85	0.36
Post location	65% station (coded 1) 35% other location (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.65	0.48
Tenure	Years in current position	0	30	1.50	2.64	3.58
Educ. level	34% college degree (coded 1) 66% no degree (coded 0)	0	1	0	0.34	0.47
Position	52% line officer (coded 1) 48% other position (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.52	0.50
Time-based WFC	5 item additive index, α = .65 FA: .69, .61, .70, .61, .62	5	25	19	18.75	3.66
Strain-based WFC	7 item additive index, α = .77 FA: .70, .59, .67, .62, .73, .68, .51	7	35	22	21.59	5.58
Behavior-based WFC	5 item additive index, α = .61 FA: .71, .58, .59, .56, .67	5	25	15	15.28	3.78
Family-based WFC	6 item additive index, α = .73 FA: .63, .50, .63, .67, .77, .70	6	29	17	16.94	4.74
Continuance commitment	6 item additive index, α = .82 FA: .74, .73, .71, .78, .69, .74	7	30	22	20.68	4.63
Affective commitment	5 item additive index, α = .89 FA: .88, .83, .82, .83, .82	5	25	20	17.87	4.75

Note. Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; Med = median value; Educ. level = educational level; WFC = work–family conflict; α = Cronbach’s alpha, a measure of internal reliability and FA = factor analysis loading scores. The number of participants was 410.

Independent variables

The four types of WFC were the independent variables of interest and were measured using items adapted from Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (2000). The items and their response options are presented in the appendix. Time-based WFC was measured using five items and had a Cronbach’s alpha of .65. Although low, the alpha value is above .60, the cut-off point (Gronlund, 1981). The time-based items loaded on a single factor in a principal axis factor analysis and had factor loading scores ranging from .61 to .70. Strain-based conflict was measured using seven items (Cronbach’s α = .77) and the factor loading scores ranged from .51 to .73 with the items loading on a single factor. The five items used to measure behavior-based WFC had a Cronbach’s alpha value of .61 and loaded on a single factor in factor analysis, with loading scores ranging from .56 to .71. Family-based conflict was measured using six items that had a Cronbach’s alpha of .73. These items also loaded on a single factor, with loading scores ranging from .50 to .77. Additive indexes for the four types of WFC were created by summing together the responses to the items for each particular type. Finally, age, gender, marital status, post location, tenure, educational level, and position were included more as control than explanatory variables. Table 1 displays how these variables were measured.

Results

Descriptive statistics for the measures used in this study are presented in Table 1. There appeared to be significant variation in the dependent and independent variables (i.e., none were constants). The variables appeared to be normally distributed based on statistical tests. In addition, the median and mean values for the variables are similar to one another, also suggesting a normal distribution. The typical participant was a married male line officer in his middle thirties with no college degree.

The correlations for the variables are presented in Table 2. Gender and educational level each had a significant correlation with continuance commitment. Male and college-educated officers were generally higher on this form of commitment compared with female officers and their noncollege-educated counterparts. Time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based WFC each had a significant positive correlation with the continuance dimension of organizational commitment. For affective commitment, age, marital status, and position had significant correlations. As age increased, so did affective commitment. Married officers tended to report higher levels of this dimension of commitment compared with unmarried officers. Constables generally reported lower affective commitment than did officers in other positions. All four types of WFC had negative correlations with this form of commitment. Finally, there was no significant correlation between continuance commitment and affective commitment, indicating that they are measuring different dimensions of organizational commitment.

Table 2.

Correlation Matrix.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
1. Age	1.00
2. Gender	.18**	1.00
3. Married	.38**	.04	1.00
4. Post Location	.06	.02	−.16**	1.00
5. Tenure	.19**	.02	.14**	−.06	1.00
6. Educ. level	−.28**	−.18**	.02	−.16**	−.07	1.00
7. Position	−.59**	−.01	−.28**	.01	−.17**	.12**	1.00
8. Time-based	−.04	.04	.02	.12*	.03	.05	.01	1.00
9. Strain-based	.04	.02	.07	.14**	.03	−.05	−.02	.61**	1.00
10. Behav-based	−.22**	.10	−.21**	.10	.03	.04	.21**	.38**	.40**	1.00
11. Family	−.06	−.03	−.12*	.13*	−.02	−.07	.05	.36**	.49**	.45**	1.00
12. Continuance	.04	.16**	.03	.00	.07	−.16**	.07	.27**	.27**	.29**	.06	1.00
13. Affective	.15**	.01	.17**	.00	.00	.00	−.12*	−20**	−.28**	−.22**	−.17**	−.06

Note. Educ. level = educational level; Time-based = time-based WFC; Strain-based = strain-based WFC; Behav-based = behavior-based WFC; Family = family-based WFC; Continuance = continuance commitment; Affective = affective commitment; WFC = work–family conflict. The number of respondents was 410. For a description of the variables, how they were measured, and their descriptive statistics, see Table 1.

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01.

Two ordinary least squares (OLS) regression equations were estimated, one for each of the dimensions of organizational commitment. The independent variables for both regression equations were age, gender, marital status, post location, tenure, educational level, position, and the four types of WFC. The results for the two multivariate regression analyses are reported in Table 3. The variance inflation factor and tolerance statistics (reported in the note section of Table 3) indicated there was not a multicollinearity problem among the independent variables. In addition, the issues of outliers, influential cases, normality, linearity and homoscedasticity of residuals, and independence of errors in the regression analysis were tested and were found to be nonproblematic (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

Table 3.

Multivariate Regression Results of Effects of WFC on Continuance and Affective Commitment.

Variable	Continuance commitment		Affective commitment
Variable	B	β	B	β
Age	0.06	.11	0.01	.02
Gender	1.16	.09	0.51	.04
Married	0.80	.06	3.78	.25**
Posting location	−0.44	−.05	0.57	.06
Tenure	0.06	.04	−0.09	−.06
Educational level	−1.39	−.15**	0.43	.04
Position	1.06	.11	−0.23	−.02
Time-based WFC	0.18	.14*	−0.06	−.05
Strain-based WFC	0.12	.15*	−0.23	−.26**
Behavior-based WFC	0.35	.29**	−0.11	−.09
Family-based WFC	−0.19	−.20**	0.07	.07
R ²	.21		.19

Note. Ordinary least squares regression was used. B = unstandardized regression coefficient; β = standardized regression coefficient; df = degrees of freedom; WFC = work–family conflict. The number of respondents was 410. Listwise deletion was used. For the job stress regression model, the number of cases after listwise deletion was 301, and the tolerance and variance inflation factor values ranged from .52 to .95 and 1.05 to 1.91, respectively. For the organizational commitment model, the number of cases after listwise deletion was 300, and the tolerance and variance inflation factor values ranged from .53 to .95 and 1.05 to 1.91, respectively. For a description of the variables, how they were measured, and their descriptive statistics, see Table 1.

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01.

The R² for the regression equation with continuance commitment as the dependent variable was .21, which means the independent variables explained approximately 21% of the variance observed in the continuance commitment index. Educational level and the four WFC variables had significant relationships. College-educated officers reported less of a necessity to remain with the police agency. Time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based WFC had positive effects on this form of organization commitment, which means increases in these stressors were associated with greater feeling of having to remain with the police agency. Family-based conflict had a negative association, which means increases in this stressor were associated with lower continuance commitment.

The independent variables accounted for about 19% of the observed variance in the affective commitment index. Marital status and strain-based WFC were the only two variables in the multivariate analysis to have significant effects. Married officers tended to report higher affective commitment. Conversely, officers who reported greater strain-based conflict reported lower levels of this dimension of commitment to the police organization.

Discussion and Conclusion

Only two of the eight hypotheses were supported. As predicted, family-based conflict was correlated with lower continuance commitment (Hypothesis 4) and strain-based conflict was correlated with lower affective commitment (Hypothesis 6). Interestingly, time-based conflict, strain-based conflict, and behavior-based conflict were related to higher levels of continuance commitment, the opposite direction as postulated in Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3. Time-based, behavior-based, and family-on-work WFC had nonsignificant effects on affective commitment, contrary to Hypotheses 5, 7, and 8.

Strain-based WFC reducing the affective form of organizational commitment makes sense (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Of the different types, strain-based conflict is the most likely to result in harm to the relationships of officers outside of work (Lambert et al., 2016). Strain-based conflict often results in disagreements and arguments with people at home. This can be a trying experience, harming important personal relationships. It is likely that the organization is held at least partially responsible for this strain. In the end, this type of WFC erodes the affective bond with the organization, as indicated by the current results. As noted earlier, Indian police work difficult jobs, dealing with civil conflicts and riots, and a distrustful public, and the type of work can result in strain-based conflict, ultimately reducing affective commitment (Kaur et al., 2013; Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, et al., 2017).

Neither time-based nor behavior-based conflict had significant direct effects in the multivariate regression analysis with affective commitment, but they had significant negative correlations. It has been suggested that time-based and behavior-based conflict results in strain-based conflict (Lambert et al., 2016). This would explain the negative correlations but no direct effects in the regression equation for these two variables. An additional unreported OLS regression equation was estimated with strain-based conflict dropped from the analysis; both time-based and behavior-based conflict had significant negative effects on affective commitment in this new analysis (β = −.16, p ≤ .01 and β = −.13, p ≤ .05, respectively). Family-on-work conflict, however, continued to have a nonsignificant association with affective commitment. Finally, a second unreported regression equation with strain-based conflict as the dependent variable was estimated. In this equation, the control variables and time-based and behavior-based WFC served as the independent variables. Both time-based and behavior-based conflict had significant positive effects on strain-based conflict (β = .52, p ≤ .01 and β = .24, p ≤ .01, respectively). The results from the new analyses, along the previous results, indicate that time-based and behavior-based conflict have indirect effects on affective commitment through strain-based conflict. As previously indicated, Indian police officers work long hours and often work weeks at a time before receiving time off, and this can result in time-based conflict (Selokar et al., 2011). It is possible that this time-based conflict results in strain-based conflict, ultimately reducing affective commitment.

Family-on-work conflict had a nonsignificant effect on affective commitment. The direction of the spillover of this type of WFC is from home to work. An officer may not attribute home problems spilling over to work as the fault of the organization. In other words, work-on-family conflict is more likely to be blamed on the organization than would family-on-work conflict. Affective commitment indicates a strong emotional attachment to the job. It represents identification with the goals and values of the organization. The origin of family-on-work conflict lies in the domain of the family, not work, and, therefore, it is much less likely to have a significant influence on affective commitment.

Although having significant effects, the direction of the relationship for three work-on-family conflicts were the opposite of our hypotheses. It is theoretically difficult to explain why the time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based conflict leads to greater continuance commitment. It could be that these types of WFC cause officers to feel they must stay with the organization. A more plausible explanation is that the direction of the relationship between WFC and this dimension of commitment is misspecified. In other words, continuance commitment is a stressor that contributes to greater work-on-family conflict for police officers. The investments may become sunken costs, which bind officers to the organization even though they do not wish to stay (Namasivayam & Zhao, 2007). This can result in a feeling of being trapped, which can lead to psychological strain. Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, and Topolnytsky (2002) reported that people with high levels of continuance commitment frequently report feeling resentful and hopeless. Sometimes, time and behavior investments need to be made for an officer to be successful. Likewise, officers may have to be more aggressive at work, take chances, and keep their emotions and frustration bottled up at work to increase their success in the organization, and this can result in strain-based conflict. The current results suggest for some officers that feeling stuck in the job because of necessity rather than desire can result in different types of work-on-family conflict. The explanation that continuance commitment results in time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based conflict is an untested explanation that needs to be studied using a longitudinal design.

Another reason for the unexpected relationship between WFC and continuance commitment could lie in the unique cultural conditions in India, especially in the State of Haryana. Before independence, the police were used by the British to enforce its dominance and control on the Indian people. This resulted in frequent use of excess force and there was a fear of the police in the society. The colonial rule of the British ended in 1947 with the independence of India. Even after independence, police misconduct continued (Verma & Subramanian, 2013). In the past several decades, there has been efforts to improve the level of policing services offered in India. For instance, a scheme by the name of “Ujjawala” (or brightness) has been launched for prevention of trafficking for rescue, rehabilitation, and re-integration of victims of sex trafficking. Several other citizen-friendly programs have been launched by the government (Verma, Qureshi, & Kim, 2017). Nevertheless, even with these positive efforts, many citizens view the Indian police as being corrupt, brutal, having low public accountability, and acting as power agents for the interests of those in power (Verma & Subramanian, 2013). Being a police officer, including in the State of Haryana, is viewed by some officers as a means to control others rather than serving the people. This may result in a value conflict where police officers are now asked to be courteous and helpful, whereas they harbor notions of showing power to those around them. The officers who score high on continuance commitment may wish to continue in the job because of this perceived sense of power that it gives them over people. This desire for power but also demands to act in a more professional and accountable manner may result in WFC for some officers. It is also possible because of the nature of the negative view by many of the Indian police that officers cannot leave their jobs even if they suffer different forms of WFC because some employers are reluctant to hire them.

Another reason for the positive relation between time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based WFC and continuance commitment may be the employment scenario in State of Haryana. The unemployment rate in Haryana is 18% and much higher than the national unemployment rate of 7% (Mehra, 2018). Such extreme shortage of jobs in Haryana does not allow a serving police officer an opportunity to quit and look for alternatives. It is also a fact that, for most officers, police work is a low paying job (Lambert et al., 2018). The inability of a police officer to adequately look after the financial needs of the family could result in strain in the family domain. This could be a possible explanation for the positive association between WFC and continuance commitment in case of police officers from the State of Haryana. This may also explain the low turnover rate among Haryanvi officers, especially line officers, which is very low (often about 1%; Haryana Police, 2016). Despite strain from domain spillover, they cannot leave even if they wish to leave. This and the other explanations need to be tested to determine whether they are supported or not.

Family-on-work conflict had a negative relationship with continuance commitment. Problems that follow from home to work could weaken the perceived investments being made in the organization. When problems from home follow a person to work, it could reduce investments at work, such as high and quality performance. The domain of family is very important in a person’s life, especially in India. The United States has a high individualism score of 91, while India has a much lower score of 48 (Hofstede, 2003). This has implications for police administrators who may want to decrease WFC among officers. Police administrators can help create support groups for officers to meet and discuss WFC and positive solutions to these domain problems. In addition, supervisors can be trained to recognize WFC among their officers and provide ideas about how officers can deal with WFC with positive and effective coping mechanisms. Similarly, police administrators and supervisors need to work on reducing the occurrence of WFC.

Except for educational level and marital status, the control variables (i.e., age, gender, post location, tenure, and position) had nonsignificant associations with the two dimensions of commitment in the multivariate analysis. This is good news for police administrators, because these variables are either difficult to change or should not be manipulated. Officers with a college education generally reported lower continuance commitment than did noncollege officers. College-educated officers tend to have other employment opportunities because of their education and skills and, as such, are less likely to report they must remain with the police agency. Married officers reported higher affective commitment than single officers. As noted by a reviewer, married officers may feel more affective commitment due to family responsibility. This is an interesting finding which needs further research before a definitive explanation can be reached.

As with many studies, the current study had limitations. First, it was a single study involving officers from a single district in the Indian State of Haryana. The current findings may be situational and contextual, meaning that the findings may vary across different police districts and agencies. The crime rate for the selected district was 203 reported crimes per 100,000, and this was slightly lower than the overall crime rate of 230 per 100,000 for all of Haryana; however, the murder rate was slightly higher for the district, at 5.4 per 100,000 as compared with 4.2 per 100,000 for Haryana. Other districts in Haryana have lower crime rates. Likewise, other states in India have higher or lower crime rates than Haryana (National Crime Records Bureau, 2017). Results could differ across jurisdictions based on their crime rates. With additional research, the associations of the various types of WFC and the two dimensions of organizational commitment among police officers should become clearer. Second, longitudinal studies are needed to determine the directions of the effects between WFC and organizational commitment, particularly for work-on-family conflict and the continuance dimension. Third, the alpha values for time-based and behavior-based conflict were .65 and .61. Although these values are above .60 and the items loaded as expected in factor analysis, ideally they need to be higher. Future research should explore using new items to increase the alpha values for these variables. Fourth, there is a need to explore how WFC affects police officers in terms of other areas, such as job satisfaction, burnout, turnover intent, turnover, job satisfaction, and job involvement. Research is also needed to explore what other factors are linked to police officer organizational commitment. Finally, only about 20% of the variance of each dimension of commitment were accounted in the current study. This means other variables help shape commitment, and these variables need to be identified and understood.

If future research confirms the results we found, there are implications. Police administrators need to be aware of the issue of different forms of commitment and that occupational stressors may have different effects on each form of commitment. In the current study, strain-based conflict had a significant direct negative effect on affective commitment and time-based and behavior-based conflict had indirect effects through strain-based conflict. As such, police administrators need to be aware of the issue of WFC and reduce it. Communication is needed with officers as to why strain-based conflict occurs. In addition, officers need to be provided necessary skills to deal with work strain positively, so as to reduce the occurrence of strain-based conflict. Training should be provided to help officers realize and move effectively between work and home roles so behavior-based conflict is either avoided or reduced. Although it did not have significant effects on affective commitment, efforts should be undertaken to address family-on-work conflict. Employee assistance programs that deal with this form of strain should be instituted. For example, the Haryana police now provide child care services at the place of work. This service has proved helpful especially for women working in active policing roles. In addition, as noted by Kaur et al. (2013), Indian officers need to be provided with interventions to deal with stress using positive coping methods rather than maladaptive ones that are often used.

If continuance commitment is confirmed to be a negative strain for some officers, efforts need to be undertaken to minimize the occurrence of this dimension of commitment and instead build affective commitment. Research is needed on why continuance commitment occurs and the best ways to reduce the possible negative strain of this form of organizational commitment. Without knowing the factors that result in high levels of continuance commitment, police agencies may institute changes that accidentally increase continuance commitment but have no positive effect (or even negative effects) on affective commitment. Continuance commitment is theorized to arise due to a lack of alternatives, perceived high costs of leaving, and a lack of transferable job skills (Meyer, Allen, & Gellatly, 1990; Meyer et al., 2012).

Policing is an occupation with a number of distinct features that are likely to exacerbate WFC. They range from treating citizens with suspicion, intervening in what are often adversarial and antagonistic interactions, and working long hours, which can be demanding for Indian police officers. At the same time, officers are required to balance their work demands against demands placed on them by their family. As the skills necessary to be successful on the job are not the same as those required during interactions with their family, conflict can result. Police officers are an expensive and important resource of police agencies. Officers’ salaries and training consume a significant portion of agency budgets, thus efforts should be undertaken to retain officers. Our findings suggest that police administrators and supervisors have the ability to reduce WFC of officers. Although several of our hypotheses, grounded in prior research involving primarily Western nations, were not supported, this study highlights several additional factors. First, there is a need for further research to assess whether our findings are consistent with those involving police departments in other developing nations or are an anomaly unique to Indian officers. For instance, do our findings result because of features specific to the experience of Indian officers, factors such as a lack of alternative policing options, a lack of employment opportunity in other sectors of the economy, and differences in the work domain and relationships among family members in Indian culture. Second, there should be an emphasis on assessing whether findings from organizational research in Western countries, more generally, are transferable to police agencies (and other organizations) throughout the world. Many researchers have suggested that certain principles are applicable to all organizations irrespective of the agency context and purpose, though this remains an empirical question.

Footnotes

Appendix

Below are the items used to measure the latent concepts and all were answered using a five point Likert-type scale of strongly disagree (coded 1), disagree (coded 2), uncertain (coded 3), agree (coded 4), and strongly agree (coded 5).

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. The authors also thank Janet Lambert for editing and proofreading the article.

Authors’ Note

The authors contributed equally to this article and are listed in random order.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Eric G. Lambert

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