Mindset and participation: Correlations among healthy children

Abstract

Introduction:

Mindsets are ability-related beliefs concerning the malleability of human traits such as intelligence or personality. Mindsets span a continuum between fixed and growth mindsets; they shape engagement and behavior and contribute to performance and achievements. However, children’s mindsets regarding participation in daily activities have yet to be studied. The study objectives were to explore the domain-specificity of children’s mindsets and the correlations between mindsets and participation.

Methods:

Sixty-six children (36 boys) aged 6–9 years (m = 7.39 ± 0.85) completed the Kids’ Mindset Questionnaire assessing mindset regarding behavior, praxis, and literacy. Their parents completed the Children Participation Questionnaire-School.

Results:

Children were found to endorse growth mindsets. However, the behavior mindset score was the lowest compared to praxis and literacy mindsets (X2 = 8.72, p = 0.013). Behavior and literacy mindsets were not correlated with participation; however, the praxis mindset was positively correlated with children’s independence and enjoyment in participation (r = 0.29, r = 0.249, p < 0.05, respectively).

Conclusions:

Children tend to endorse growth mindsets; however, mindsets are domain-specific; the behavior mindset is the least malleable. Children’s beliefs regarding the malleability of praxis skills are of value for their involvement in participation. For occupational therapy practitioners, fostering children’s growth mindset can be a complementary way to promote optimal participation.

Keywords

Growth mindset fixed mindset participation independence participation enjoyment

Introduction

Mindsets are ability-related beliefs concerning the malleability of human traits such as intelligence, ability, and personality. The mindset theory (Dweck, 2008b) was developed to explain why some children are more resilient when coping with challenging tasks while others would rather avoid them. According to the theory, mindset exists along a continuum from a fixed to a growth mindset. Children with a fixed mindset believe that their intelligence cannot be changed. Therefore, they do not believe in their ability to succeed even if they were to try. In contrast, children with a growth mindset believe that their intelligence can be improved through learning and persistence; therefore, they can handle challenging tasks by persisting, employing new strategies, or seeking help. That is how mindsets shape engagement and behavior, promoting or hindering performance and achievements (Blackwell et al., 2007; Mueller and Dweck, 1988). However, most studies among children focus on academic achievements (e.g., Barroso et al., 2023; Petscher et al., 2017). The contribution of mindsets to other occupations (apart from the educational domain) should be further explored. Mindsets are domain-specific; a person can hold a different mindset (fixed, growth, or sometimes mixed) regarding intelligence, personality, or behavior (Chan et al., 2022; Chaffee et al., 2022). Therefore, mindset assessments should differentiate between domains (Verberg et al., 2019).

Regarding the origin of mindset, researchers have found that parental feedback at a young age may impact the evolving mindset. Parents who praise a child’s ability unintentionally endorse a fixed mindset, while parents who praise coping and effort promote a growth mindset (Haimovitz and Dweck, 2017). Similarly, teachers may impact their students’ mindsets (Mesler et al., 2021). Therefore, educational programs have been developed and implemented within the school system, teaching students to recognize the importance of mindset and its contribution to learning and achievements (Burnette et al., 2023). Although most studies focus on older children (above age 12), empirical evidence on younger children gradually accumulates. Associations between mindsets and adaptive outcomes among young children include perceived academic competence, school engagement and achievements, classroom behavioral self-regulation, and well-being (Campbell and Løkken, 2022; Compagnoni et al., 2019; Ruzek et al., 2020). Besides its contribution to positive outcomes for children, the mindset theory was also found to be promising in the context of health professions. Adopting a growth mindset regarding health states may contribute to recovery and rehabilitation (Crum et al., 2017). However, the association between mindsets and participation has yet to be studied.

Participation, the highest level of functioning, is defined as involvement in life situations (International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children and Youth, ICF-CY, WHO, 2007: XVI). It is considered an outcome measure within the occupational therapy framework (OTPF; American Occupational Therapy Association, 2020). Participation is multidimensional and characterized by at least two dimensions: attendance and involvement (Imms et al., 2017). Attendance relates to the objective aspects of participation, such as diversity and frequency. Involvement relates to the subjective aspects of participation, the experience of independence, enjoyment, or satisfaction. According to the ICF model, participation is a bio-psycho-social construct affected by interactions between extrinsic (environmental) and intrinsic (personal) factors (Imms et al., 2017; King et al., 2003). In this context, mindset could be related to motivation within the category of mental body functions. Previous literature has shown that sensorimotor, cognitive, and emotional body functions contribute to children’s participation (Goltz and Brown, 2014; Rosenberg, 2015; Rosenberg et al., 2017); however, the contribution of mindsets to children’s participation has not yet been extensively studied. Only one study assessed the associations between mindsets and adolescent participation. Mindsets regarding behavior and perseverance were found to be positively associated with participation dimensions (Rosenberg, 2023). Therefore, to lessen the gap for younger children, the current study aims to assess young children’s mindsets: first, to learn whether they tend toward a fixed or a growth mindset; second, to assess the differences between mindsets regarding behavior, praxis, and literacy and whether mindsets are domain-specific; third, to assess whether mindsets and participation are intercorrelated. It was hypothesized that differences will be found between behavior, praxis, and literacy mindsets and positive correlations will be found between mindset domains and participation dimensions.

Methods

Research design

A cross-sectional design was employed. The Ethics Committee of the Tel Aviv University Department of Occupational Therapy granted Ethical approval (No. 0006156-2).

Participants

A convenience sampling method was used; word-of-mouth recruitment was used to enlist the parents and their children (N = 66; 36 males and 30 females) with a mean age of 7 years, 5 months (SD = 0.85 years, range = 6.01–8.95). Fifty-six of these families (85%) were Jewish, and 10 (15%) were Muslim (approximately mirroring the percentage of Muslims in the country). All the children were attending mainstream public schools. The study excluded children who had any developmental or medical problems, as reported by their parents. Fifty-eight percent of the families lived in inner cities, and 42% were in the suburbs. Just 1.5% of the families had incomes below the regional average, while nearly half of the families (48.5%) made more than the average. Most mothers (71%) have an academic degree.

Measurements

The Kids’ Mindsets Questionnaire, K-MQ, was constructed for the current study to evaluate the mindsets of young children. Its construction was based on general assumptions regarding mindset (as mentioned earlier, mindset is a domain-specific construct ranging from a fixed to a growth mindset), in addition to conceptualizing how to utilize children’s self-reports. The self-report questionnaire for children should not be lengthy and contain simple questions with a narrow response range and visual aids to illustrate possible answers (Sturgess et al., 2002). Therefore, the K-MQ is a short and user-friendly questionnaire containing three scenarios. To assess behavior mindset, the first scenario shows a picture of two kids fighting and a written statement, “These kids are misbehaving at school.” Then, three pairs of children are shown to present different mindset statements. The first pair states, “These kids will never be able to change their behavior” (fixed mindset). The second pair state, “These kids may be able to change their behavior one day.” The third pair states, “One day these kids will certainly be able to change their behavior” (growth mindset). To assess the praxis mindset, the second scenario shows a picture of children drawing or doing puzzles and a written statement, “These kids are having trouble with drawing, cutting, and building with blocks.” Then, three pairs of children are shown to present different mindset statements. The first pair states, “These kids will never be able to learn how to draw and build” (fixed mindset). The second pair states, “These kids may one day be able to learn. . . .” The third pair states, “One day, these kids will certainly be able to learn. . .” (growth mindset). To assess the literacy mindset, the third scenario shows a picture of children with letters and numbers around them and a written statement, “These kids are having trouble learning letters and numbers.” Then, three pairs of children are shown to present different mindset statements. The first pair states, “These kids will never be able to learn letters and numbers” (fixed mindset). The second pair states, “These kids may one day be able to learn. . . .” The third pair states, “One day, these kids will certainly be able to learn. . .” (growth mindset). The examiner presents each scenario to the examinee and asks, “What do you think? The child then chooses one of the statements.” The statements are scored 1 (fixed mindset), 2, or 3 (growth mindset). The final score is the sum of the three scenarios (ranging from 3 to 9). In an initial unpublished study, five experienced occupational therapists working with children over 10 years assessed the content validity of the K-MQ. They evaluated the K-MQ as cognitively accessible and valid for children. In addition, five children were interviewed regarding the K-MQ, and it was concluded that it is less reliable for children younger than 5 years.

Children Participation Questionnaire-School

A parent-report questionnaire assessing distinct dimensions of school-age children’s participation. It comprises 55 activities (basic and instrumental daily activities, sleep, play, leisure, social participation, and education; Rosenberg and Bart, 2015). For each activity the child participates in, the parent reports the intensity (frequency), independence (level of assistance), enjoyment, and parental satisfaction. The final scores are for diversity, that is, the number of activities in which the child participates (0–55); mean frequency, ranging from never to every day (0–5); mean independence, ranging from dependent to fully independent (1–6); mean enjoyment, ranging from lowest to highest level of enjoyment (1–6); and mean parental satisfaction, ranging from lowest to highest level of satisfaction (1–6). The Children Participation Questionnaire-School (CPQ-S) has good internal reliability (Cronbach’s coefficient = 0.79–0.90). Its construct validity has been supported by known group differences and by criterion and convergent validity (Rosenberg, 2015; Rosenberg and Bart, 2015). The utility of the CPQ-S to study different facets of children’s participation was revealed in previous literature (e.g., Bart et al., 2011; Rosenberg, 2015; Sleeman and Brown, 2022).

Procedure

Occupational therapy students, trained and supervised by the author, collected the data. Parents who agreed to take part in the study provided a written informed consent and completed a sociodemographic questionnaire and the CPQ-S at their convenience.

Children provided their agreement to participate by signing an assent form. In a brief encounter, each child was evaluated individually. The examiners presented the K-MQ to all participants in the same way and delivered the instructions in accordance with a protocol.

Data analysis

Descriptive statistics were utilized to analyze the sample’s sociodemographic data and the final K-MQ and CPQ-S scores. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was used in a preliminary analysis to assess sex differences in K-MQ and CPQ-S scores. Due to the K-MQ ordinal scale, the Friedman test was used to analyze differences between mindset domains. Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to examine the correlations between mindsets and participation scores (with <0.3 = small, 0.3–0.5 = medium, and >0.5 = large; Cohen, 1988). All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25). For all tests, the level of significance was fixed at 0.05.

Results

Descriptive statistics

There were no significant differences between boys and girls in the K-MQ or CPQ-S final scores, according to a preliminary analysis (data not shown) (F(3,62) = 0.84, p = 0.48 versus F(5,60) = 0.42, p = 0.83). Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for all the research variables for the entire sample. Participation measures are expected to reflect a relatively high level of participation among typically developing children. Examining the K-MQ scores indicates that most of the children reported growth mindsets. Only 9%, 1.5%, and 3% of the participants chose “Never” (which indicates a fixed mindset) for the behavior, praxis, and literacy mindsets, respectively.

Table 1.

Raw scores of the research variables (N = 66).

Possible score		Min	Max	Med	Mean	SD
Participation Dimensions (CPQ-S)
Diversity	0–55	29.00	49.00	40.00	40.07	4.62
Frequency	1–6	4.31	5.65	4.91	4.89	0.30
Child’s independence	1–6	3.23	6.00	5.21	5.14	0.54
Child’s enjoyment	1–6	3.17	5.90	4.56	4.62	0.69
Parental satisfaction	1–6	3.63	6.00	5.45	5.32	0.56
Mindsets (K-MQ)
Behavior mindset	1–3	1.00	3.00	3.00	2.54	0.66
Praxis mindset	1–3	1.00	3.00	3.00	2.80	0.44
Literacy mindset	1–3	1.00	3.00	3.00	2.80	0.47
Mindset-total	3–9	5.00	9.00	8.00	8.15	0.98

CPQ-S, Children Participation Questionnaire-School; K-MQ, Kids’ Mindset Questionnaire.

Differences between behavior, praxis, and literacy mindsets

Significant difference was found between behavior, praxis, and literacy mindsets (Chi-Square (2) = 8.72, p = 0.013). As can be seen in Table 1, the behavior mindset score (mean = 2.54), is lower than the praxis and literacy mindset (mean = 2.80). That is, the mindset regarding behavior is more fixed than the mindset regarding praxis and literacy.

Correlations between mindsets and participation

Table 2 presents the correlations between behavior, praxis, and literacy mindsets, and participation measures. Most of the correlations were weak and not significant (ranging between r = 0.000–0.230). Only the praxis mindset was moderately significantly correlated with the child’s independence (r = 0.289, p < 0.05) and enjoyment (r = 0.243, p < 0.05). As the praxis mindset increases toward the positive end of the fixed-growth continuum, so does participation’s independence and enjoyment. Nevertheless, the K-MQ total score was marginally correlated with parental satisfaction with their child’s participation (r = 0.212, p = 0.09).

Table 2.

The correlations (Spearman’s r) between mindsets and participation (N = 66).

	K-MQ
	Behavior	Praxis	Literacy	Total
CPQ-S
Diversity	−0.036	0.025	−0.127	−0.049
Frequency	−0.073	0.028	−0.051	−0.076
Child’s Independence	0.000	0.289*	0.123	0.201
Child’s Enjoyment	0.125	0.243*	−0.068	0.197
Parental Satisfaction	0.083	0.223	0.076	0.212^ͳ

K-MQ: Kids’ Mindset Questionnaires; CPQ-S: Children Participation Questionnaire-School.

p < 0.05, ^ͳp < 0.09.

Discussion

This study initially explores elementary school-age children’s mindsets in the context of their participation in everyday activities. Three mindset domains were included behavior, praxis, and literacy. The results show that typically developing children do have growth mindsets. However, differences exist between the domains. Finally, and interestingly, the praxis mindset was moderately associated with dimensions of children’s participation, while behavior and literacy mindsets were not.

Finding a growth mindset among young children is not exceptional. Previous studies on the intelligence mindset among children aged 4–6 years revealed that most participants chose responses that reflect a growth mindset (Muradoglu et al., 2022; Ruzek et al., 2020). However, the current study broadens the knowledge to domains other than intelligence in the educational setting alone. Behavior and praxis mindsets could impact a child’s performance at home and in the community. The developmental perspective suggests that children are innately optimistic, believing in the malleability of human traits through (doing) effort and hard work and are less prone to limiting beliefs about abilities. Endorsing a growth mindset helps children master critical developmental milestones and skills such as tying shoelaces, riding a bike, doing a jigsaw puzzle, or writing the alphabet (Lockhart et al., 2002).

In the current study, the lowest growth mindset was reported for the behavior domain. The domain-specificity of mindset was found in previous studies. Chan et al. (2022) assessed mindsets regarding ability, intelligence, relationship, and personality among adolescents; they found personality mindset to be the least malleable. The authors discussed their finding considering the unique characteristics of the Chinese culture. However, among younger children (under 6 years), different findings were revealed. Wilbur (2016) assessed mindset regarding intelligence, personality, and athletic ability, and found stability between domains for most participants (>80%). However, already in 1991 Bempechat et al. suggested that the domain-specificity of mindset becomes accentuated over time. To understand the current finding, it may be assumed that children’s mindsets are influenced by formal teaching. Praxis skills and literacy are explicitly taught at home, at school, and in the community, while behavior is more implicitly learned. Based on their everyday experience, children may be aware of self-regulatory processes that govern behavior and are sometimes hard to control. Therefore, their belief in the malleability of behavior is less accentuated. Correlations between self-regulation and mindsets support this argument (Burnette et al., 2013; Compagnoni et al., 2019; Mrazek et al., 2018). As mentioned, parental and teacher feedback is related to evolving mindsets; parental authoritarian practices, such as punishment for misbehavior, may limit children’s belief in the malleability of their behavior (Smetana, 2017). However, further studies are warranted to support this assumption.

Although adaptations of the mindset theory in the context of the health professions have gradually evolved (Crum et al., 2017), only one previous study assessed the correlations between mindset and participation (Rosenberg, 2023). Using self-report questionnaires, adolescents reported on their participation and mindsets in three domains: intelligence, emotional and behavior, and perseverance. The intelligence mindset was not found to be correlated with any participation dimension, yet mindsets regarding behavior and perseverance were positively and moderately associated with most of the participation dimensions. In contrast, the current study’s results are modest; only the praxis mindset was found correlated with children’s independence and enjoyment in their participation. The discrepancy between the results of the studies may be due to the participants’ age and to the methods utilized. Adolescents self-reported their participation and mindsets, while the younger children reported only their mindsets; their parents reported their participation.

Nevertheless, the associations between mindset and participation can be understood through processes evoked by self-beliefs. According to the mindset theory, belief in the malleability of personal traits determines goal setting, coping strategies, persistence, and other resilience behaviors that may impact outcomes such as participation. The unique contribution of the current study, however, is in highlighting the praxis mindset and its value for children’s participation. Praxis abilities, including motor and process skills, are central to performing daily occupations. A limited belief in the malleability of praxis skills may lead to avoidance or disengagement, and thus may hamper children’s independence and enjoyment in their participation. Previous literature supports the utility of growth mindset interventions in an educational context. Children express higher motivation and persistence in schoolwork after being taught about neuroplasticity, that their intelligence can be developed through effort, to see hard work as a learning opportunity rather than evidence for less ability (Dweck, 2008a). Occupational therapy practitioners may adopt a similar approach to support the praxis growth mindset of their clients.

Regarding the insignificant findings concerning the behavior and literacy mindsets; they would probably have been more crucial for participation in specific domains, such as basic and instrumental activities of daily living, or education. Notably, the mindset total score was marginally associated with parental satisfaction with their child’s participation. This result may imply that endorsing a growth mindset may help the child participate as best as they can, to their parents’ satisfaction.

Limitations and future research

It should be noted that the generalizability of the current findings is limited due to the sample’s characteristics, as most of the children had relatively educated parents with average or above-average income. Previous literature suggests that socioeconomic status (SES) impacts mindsets, with more fixed mindset beliefs among lower-SES students (Destin et al., 2019). Moreover, associations between mindsets, motivation, and engagement were found only for students from high-SES (King and Trinidad, 2021). Furthermore, mindsets were assessed by a newly developed questionnaire. The findings support its applicability; however, further studies are warranted to support its validity. In addition, causality inference is limited due to the research method. Further studies should employ multivariate regression models to broaden knowledge of the contribution of mindsets to children’s participation.

In addition, intervention-based research is warranted to assess the feasibility and utility of growth mindset intervention programs in occupational therapy with children.

This study has the following implications for occupational therapy practice:

The findings highlight the value of the praxis mindset in the context of children’s participation.

Occupational therapy practitioners may contribute to children’s optimal participation by developing their growth mindset regarding praxis.

Task-specific training and positive reinforcement strategies focusing on effort and persistence rather than innate ability can scaffold children’s beliefs in the malleability of their praxis skills, which may support their independence and enjoyment in daily activities.

Conclusions

Young children endorsed growth mindsets regarding behavior, praxis, and literacy. However, children’s mindsets are domain-specific, and their beliefs regarding behavior are the least flexible. Mindset regarding praxis is correlated with involvement-related dimensions of participation, that is, independence and enjoyment.

Occupational therapy practitioners can incorporate growth mindset principles to enhance children’s optimal participation and engagement in daily activities.

Key findings

Children were found to endorse growth mindsets.

Mindsets are domain-specific; the behavior mindset is the least malleable.

The praxis mindset was positively correlated with children’s independence and enjoyment in participation.

What the study has added

Children’s mindsets were initially assessed in the context of their participation. The findings highlight the value of a growth mindset regarding praxis skills for children’s involvement in their everyday participation.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I thank all the parents and children who consented to participate in the study and all the devoted occupational therapy students who participated in the data collection.

Research ethics

The research protocol was approved by the ethics committee at Tel Aviv University on March 2023 (No. 0006156-2).

Consent

All the participants were informed of the study’s risks and benefits, that their participation was voluntary, and that their identity would not be disclosed. All the participants gave their agreement and signed a written consent form. Confidentiality and data security were handled according to the guidelines of the scientific committee.

Patient and public involvement data

Patient and public involvement in the research was not included at any stage of the research.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author declared no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Contributorship

Limor Rosenberg is the only contributor to the study.

ORCID iD

Limor Rosenberg

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