Abstract
A
Andersen and Forbes present the culmination of 40 years of computational research in classical Hebrew linguistics, the screenshot from 1971 on p. 17 providing a tangible touch of nostalgia. The book serves more than one purpose. Perhaps its main goal is to demonstrate a holistic approach to clause analysis, and a secondary purpose is to introduce the scholarly world to the value of the ‘Andersen-Forbes’ database imminently available from Logos Software (at what cost remains unclear). The main vehicle for both purposes is what the authors call a ‘phrase marker’ which, somewhat counterintuitively, is a tree diagram rotated 90 degrees anti-clockwise (more a ‘vine’ diagram, perhaps?). The rationale leading to the production (chs. 1–8) and the subsequent analysis (chs. 9–20) of ‘phrase markers’ occupies the bulk of the book. The final chapter slips into the realm of discourse and ‘supra-clausal structures’, a topic that strains at the leash throughout much of the earlier discussion. Seven chapters in the appendixes address a range of topics in greater detail for those with specialist interests. Inevitably and obviously, many of the judgments expressed are open to challenge. Meanwhile, the authors write with clarity and even a touch of panache, making the discussions accessible to their target audience of ‘intermediate and advanced students of Biblical Hebrew’. In spite of BHGV being a ‘culmination’ of sorts, Andersen and Forbes admit at numerous points that this represents only a beginning and that many results remain provisional. Only time will tell how useful their approach will prove; those who track with them will find their understanding of Biblical Hebrew enriched.
D.J. R
B
This volume arises from a preparatory meeting in Strasbourg for a Theological and Historical Lexicon of the Septuagint, which will be edited by Joosten and Bons. Accordingly, the papers edited in the current work focus on sample cases of words from the LXX that can be understood better from their place within the history of the Greek language. The introduction by Joosten, ‘The Vocabulary of the Septuagint and its Historical Context’, reviews the nature of the Greek of the LXX with some attention to the issues of sociolect, Hebrew influence and reception history. Methodological issues are also touched upon in the essays by Joosten, ‘Le vocabulaire de la Septante et la question du sociolecte des Juifs Alexandrins: Le cas du verbe ∊ὐλoγέω, “Bénir”’ and Christoph Kugelmeier, ‘Bibel, Papyri und Philosophen: Beobachtungen zur Geschichte hellenistischer Abstraktbegriffe’. The remaining essays focus on specific lexical examples: Kyriakoula Papademetriou, ‘From the Arete of the Ancient World to the Arete of the New Testament. A Semantic Investigation’; Michaël N. van der Meer, ‘Problems and Perspectives in Septuagint Lexicography: The Case of Non-Compliance (ἀπ∊ιθέω)’; Jan Willem van Henten, ‘Barbarism and the Word Group βάρβαρoς Etcetera in the Septuagint’; Madeleine Wieger, ‘Eὐσέβ∊ια et “crainte de Dieu” dans la Septante’; Joseph Verheyden, ‘Reading a New Testament Hapax within a Broader Context: The Case of ἀπo(ρ)ρίπτω (Acts 27:43)’; Eberhard Bons and Anna Passoni Dell'Acqua, ‘A Sample Article: κτίζω—κτίσις—κτίσμα—κτίστης’. Much work remains to be done on the Greek of the Septuagint and these papers bring welcome fresh light on the words studied.
J.K. A
C
This technical and concentrated work examines the verbal use of the Hebrew infinitive absolute through analysing every one of the 668 occurrences in the HB. The main focus is on the modality of the context for two main classes of occurrence: paronomastic, where the infinitive absolute occurs alongside a finite verb of the same root, and independent, where the infinitive absolute takes the place of a finite verb. C. works with modern linguistic categories for modality, with two main distinctions: propositional, concerned with the truth of a given proposition, and event, which addresses conditioning factors surrounding an event. An example of the former is epistemic modality, which deals with the speaker's judgment about the factual status of a proposition; an example of the latter is deontic modality, which imposes upon its subjects some kind of obligation to act. C. further calibrates his study with distinctions between prose and poetry, narrative and discourse, the relative social status of speaker and hearer, and word order. He also has a briefer illustrative chapter on non-modal occurrences. The book concludes with detailed and graphically presented statistical analyses and implications. One conclusion is that the paronomastic infinitive absolute accents the modality of its cognate verb in modal contexts, but in non-modal contexts it intensifies the verbal idea. Another is that the profile of usage differs significantly between narrative and discourse, to a greater extent even than the different profile between poetry and prose. This is an interesting and demanding study.
J.E. R
C
With the appearance of Volume VIII, eighteen years after Volume I, we can celebrate the completion of what must be one of the most valuable reference works ever published. The inclusion of Ben Sira, the Qumran documents and ancient Hebrew inscriptions, which account for about a third of the data in DCH, puts this in a class of its own and, together with the authors’ enlightened methodology and style, ushers in a new era in the history of Hebrew lexicography. In this volume, for example, we welcome into the vocabulary of Classical Hebrew another list of words missing from the somewhat restricted corpus of the HB, including shalshelet, ‘chain’, sha‘ah, ‘time’, talmud, ‘learning’ and tarnegol, ‘cock’. As in the preceding volumes, every lexical item is meticulously analysed, from lengthy articles on common words like shalom, shama‘, torah and tefillah to shorter entries on words rarely attested or not attested at all, including those invented by comparative philologists. All the relevant data on the morphology, meaning and usage of each, with synonyms, antonyms and a full bibliography, are presented with exemplary clarity and precision and the utmost care is evident throughout in the choice of English equivalents. Not content with this extraordinary achievement, the indefatigable editor now has plans for a ninth volume, containing addenda, corrigenda and an English-Hebrew Index to the whole work, as well as revised editions of Volume I (Aleph) (1994), which had no bibliography and was completed before some of the Qumran material was accessible, and the very successful Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew (2009).
J.F.A. S
C
The large number of conditional sentences in texts such as the Laws of Hammurabi are dwarfed by the number of ‘conditional structures’ subjected here to a detailed analysis. That phrase is used to cover all kinds of hypothetical utterances, in other words, sentences which are not statements of fact. For Biblical Hebrew this includes clauses introduced with ‘im and ky and also some with the precative particle lū as well as others where clauses are linked paratactically. Emphasis is placed on the more everyday language of letters rather than the more formal style of monuments. In ch. 1 the concept is explained from a general linguistic perspective with examples from other Semitic languages. In ch. 2 the structures in letters are examined. The letter corpus chosen is that of the series Altbabylonische Briefe, where some 500 such clauses have been identified, mostly introduced with šumma but with other constructions well represented. That ištu occurs with both temporal as well as conditional significance is aptly to be compared with the functions of BH ky. In ch. 3 conditional structures in the law collections and in ch. 4 those in collections of omens are identified and similarly analysed. The expression ‘Mesopotamian Old Babylonian’ has been used specifically to exclude the corpus of letters from Mari, which are regarded as having too many divergent features from the selected corpus to justify treating them together. While this proposal has undoubted appeal, the implication that Mari is not in Mesopotamia is untenable.
M.E.J. R
F
This journal has a new editor. The articles published here cover Hebrew grammar and literature from antiquity to the present. Articles of potential interest to B.L. readers (all with abstracts) are a linguistic essay on the diachrony debate—perspectives from pattern recognition and meta-analysis (with an extended critique of I. Young et al., Linguistic Dating of Biblical Texts [B.L. 2010, pp. 215–16]; A.D. Forbes), literary use of dialect in 2 Sam. 14.19 (N. Zahavi-Ely), ‘yntm in Hos. 10.10 (S. Bar), the strategic use of politeness language in Esther (B.D. Estelle) and organization and structure in 4QpPsalma (4Q171; H.J. Keener). There are also a number of essays on mediaeval and modern writers and literature. A review essay (by B.D. Walfish) looks at I. Kalimi, A Retelling of Chronicles in Jewish Tradition and Literature (B.L. 2010, p. 129), Y. Berger, The Commentary of Rabbi David Kimḥi to Chronicles (B.L. 2011, pp. 128–29) and E. Viezel, The Commentary on Chronicles attributed to Rashi (2010; Heb.). There are about 80 pages of short reviews.
L.L. G
G
This began as a PhD at the Hebrew University (supervisor: S. Fassberg), but G. has chosen to publish it in his native language (though there is also an English summary on pp. 506–18). The study is based not only on the Qumran scrolls (biblical and non-biblical) but also on the Damascus Document (CD) and the texts from elsewhere in the Judaean Desert. This corpus of texts has been compared with other Hebrew texts, an ambitious collection that includes not only the MT but even the Samaritan Pentateuch and column 2 of Origen's Hexapla, among others. Among his observations, G. finds that Qumran Hebrew is uniform (except for the Copper Scroll and MMT), without evidence of diachronic development. Qumran Hebrew has as a whole the same tense system as Biblical Hebrew (and thus differs from Mishnaic Hebrew). There are many differences between Qumran and Biblical Hebrew usage in the participle, but this is mainly in the details. The detailed differences are given in a comparative table (pp. 494–505). Interestingly, Aramaic influence can be found on individual lexemes but not general grammatical phenomena. A number of lists are contained on the accompanying CD-ROM, which adds to the completeness of the study. This should remain a valuable reference work for a long time to come.
L.L. G
G
This book is the fruit of G.'s long career teaching Semitic languages. It contains 587 pages of tables listing all attested Hebrew verb forms with verbal suffixes (according to G. they number 6411 in BHS). In order to be as comprehensive as possible, he does not differentiate between participles and infinitives that are used as nouns and those that are used as verbs in the text. Compiling the lists in the hundreds of tables must have been a considerable amount of work and will no doubt facilitate further research on the pronominally suffixed verb in Hebrew. At the same time one wonders whether in the age of grammatically tagged, electronic editions of the Hebrew Bible a book such as this one is really necessary, especially as G. does not include any analysis other than the tables themselves. The book will be helpful to grammarians because it presents them with a collection of the relevant data, which they can then use for further analysis. I would recommend the book to graduate students studying the Hebrew verbal system in addition to some electronically tagged text. For other readers it may not prove to be very useful.
J. S
G
Common to the languages of Arabia, Greece, Persia and Syria-Palestine discussed here is the alphabetic script in various forms (p. vii). This collective volume is an English translation of Sprachen aus der Welt des Alten Testaments (Darmstadt, 2009, 2nd edn, 2012), which was not reviewed in the B.L. The introduction, by the editor, describes the historical and geographical setting of the languages in question, followed by comments on writing and the alphabet (A. Millard). The Semitic languages then discussed are Ugaritic (A. Gianto), Phoenician and ancient Hebrew (both by Gzella), the languages of Transjordan—Ammonite, Edomite and Moabite—(K. Beyer), Old and Imperial Aramaic (M. Folmer) and Old South Arabian (R. Hasselbach). The last two chapters are on Old Persian (M. de Van and A. Lubotsky) and Greek (A. Willi). Then come a table of the forms of West Semitic and Greek letters (compiled by P. Daniels), two maps and an index. Each author has adopted a slightly different layout, and while some use footnotes others give a bibliography. There are also differences in content: for example, Gianto is the only one to discuss poetry (pp. 48–51) and notes on the lexicon are only given by Gianto (p. 30), Gzella (pp. 72–73) and Hasselbach (p. 189). With its focus on grammar, including phonology, morphology and syntax, this survey is more technical than its counterpart, namely, J. Kaltner and S.L. McKenzie (eds.), Beyond Babel: A Handbook for Biblical Hebrew and Related Languages (Leiden, 2002; cf. B.L. 2003, pp. 194–95), though neither includes North Arabian or Ethiopic. The book will serve as a handy introduction to the grammatical peculiarities of these alphabetic languages and perhaps also be used for quick reference. It may even encourage readers to learn one or more of them.
W.G.E. W
K
Originating as a PhD thesis, K.'s study uses cognitive linguistic methods to discuss metaphors of distress found in the Hebrew Bible and texts from Qumran, focusing specifically on all texts in the first person singular that describe situations of distress. While the stated approach is that of George Lakoff, Mark Johnson and Zoltán Kövecses, in the process significant space is given to addressing James Barr's concerns. The book is densely packed and immensely detailed with a great deal of painstaking definition, methodology, background and theory to satisfy the demands of a PhD thesis, but most of the study comprises close textual analysis and discussion, and this is a real strength from the point of view of biblical scholars. A chapter is given to each of the basic image schemas of distress and ‘Verticality’, ‘Constraint’ and ‘Force’ and to primary metaphors of ‘Distress and Darkness’ and ‘Distress and Bad Taste’. A useful appendix indicates the texts considered and their classification (although in the table ‘constraint’ becomes ‘containment’, which is initially confusing) and the conclusion includes a fascinating analysis of how the metaphors combine to produce a prototypical ‘Distress Scenario’.
A.S. T
J
No short review of a complex work such as this one could even attempt to do it justice, but I hope that this excellent work will stimulate much further discussion on the Hebrew verb. The book will certainly be one of the major contributions in this field for many years to come. The use of Reichenbach's categories of time of speaking (S), time of event (E) and reference point (R) allows J. to explore more fully the way that the Hebrew verbal system relates to tense, as it also shows that tense is not absent but also not its main focus. Indeed, according to J., the participle and qatal are defined by the relation between E and R (contemporaneousness and anteriority), but not between R and S (present/past tense). J. understands yiqtol not as expressing posteriority but modality. Modality—unlike aspect—is also depicted as a useful category for understanding the Hebrew verb. In other words, J. posits two main categories: indicatives and modals; the wayyiqtol (tensed: narrative), the qatal (non-tensed: anterior) and the participle (non-tensed: contemporary) are all indicatives and the yiqtol and the weqatal (non-volitives) as well as the cohortative, imperative and jussive (volitive) are all modal (table on p. 40). From that starting point, J. then goes on to analyse each of these five subcategories of forms, with regard to syntax and precise function. J. argues his case carefully with recourse to linguistic theory and wider Semitic grammar and he illustrates his points with good examples. A slight downside is the layout of the text which does not always help the reader. Anybody interested in Hebrew and its grammar will want to read this book and will do so with great gain.
J. S
L
This semantic study of a particular word-group is intended to supplement the information available in Hebrew lexica and theological word dictionaries. It combines syntactic and semantic descriptions of particular verbs and their associated phrases or ‘arguments’, with three main aims: to define the class of verbs of ‘leading’, to identify the distinguishing features of each verb and to employ this analysis in the interpretation of ‘problem’ passages in the HB. L. begins by outlining his methodology, which is guided by a combination of argument-structure (or valence) theory and semantic-role (or case grammar) theory. He then divides the verbs into two classes: the first comprises the seven main verbs of leading (
A.R. G
M
This descriptive grammar of Qumran Aramaic is divided into four main parts. Part I treats phonology, Part II the morphology of the pronoun, noun, adjective and particles (section A) and verb (section B), Part III morphosyntax of the pronoun (section A) and the noun and adjective (section B) and Part IV the syntax of the noun phrase expanded (section A), verb phrase expanded (section B) and other syntactic issues (section C). Five appendixes (list of technical terms, index of passages, modern authors, subjects, and Aramaic and other words) complete the volume. The concept of a single dialect is, of course, moot. M. notes the diversity of the parole and langue of ‘Qumran Aramaic’, but explains the variation by the dating of the texts that range over a period of three and a half centuries. Given the heterogenous character of the corpus, an alternative would be to explain the grammatical differences by an appeal to the eastern and western features of the relevant texts. It is increasingly clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls contain several collections of texts that originate from different places. M.'s treatment of the subject is the most comprehensive description of Qumran Aramaic to date and will fast become one of the standard works of reference. There are very few mistakes for a work of this length and complexity.
T. L
M
This volume is a two-way index for the Septuagint that is meant to supplement, as well as update, M.'s ‘A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint’ and Hatch and Redpath's Septuagint Concordance. Part 1 enables one to see at a glance the Hebrew/Aramaic word or words that represent(s) a given Greek word. M. has helpfully indicated in brackets the number of times each Hebrew/Aramaic element translates the Greek word and has noted all new identifications in relation to Hatch-Redpath with an asterisk. Part 2 is a revised version of M.'s Hebrew/Aramaic Index to the Septuagint Keyed to the Hatch-Redpath Concordance (1998), now out of print. In it, M. lists the Greek words that were used by the Septuagint translators to render the Hebrew/Aramaic words occurring in the OT. This is not just a reprint of M.'s 1998 index; it has been thoroughly reworked and there are many insightful observations and improvements (for example, a more extensive list of ‘Aramaizing’ renderings). In addition to revising and updating Hatch and Redpath's concordance, there are two sets of new data that M. has incorporated into this volume: data from 1 Esdras, which was curiously missing in Hatch and Redpath, and the so-called Antiochene or Proto-Lucianic versions, where relevant. This is an indispensable resource for text-critical and Septuagint studies.
S.L. B
R
The bulk of this grammar comprises fourteen lessons, each including a section on grammar, several cuneiform signs to be memorized, exercises and a text to be translated. At the end of the book, a key is provided for each lesson and a full glossary and a bibliography are also supplied. It is the result of many years of imparting this ancient Anatolian language to students. The only other Hittite teaching grammar available, H.A. Hoffner and H.C. Melchert, A Grammar of the Hittite Language. II: Tutorial (Eisenbrauns, 2008), does not include the cuneiform signs. While it is true that Hittite grammar is probably less complex than classical Greek, anyone learning it must cope with the problems presented by the script, even in transliteration. The cuneiform signs were adopted for Hittite from Akkadian, some knowledge of which is required both to decipher the script and because that language also features in the texts. So although this manual is suitable for self-instruction, a teacher would make life very much easier. The lessons are varied and well laid out, with very clear tables, the exercises are imaginative and even include a crossword, and the set passages draw on original texts. However, the book presumes access to a university library for dictionaries, additional texts and other grammars of Hittite, which may limit its readership.
W.G.E. W
S
This textbook is a clear and accessible introductory reference grammar to Biblical Aramaic (BA) suitable either for use in the classroom or as a quick reference guide. S. begins with a brief definition of BA and a history of its development, with helpful comparisons to Biblical Hebrew (although it does not presume prior knowledge of the latter). The grammar is divided into three main sections: the noun, the verb and syntax. Explanations of these are lucid and concise and are accompanied throughout by biblical examples and exercises in each case (with answers provided at the back, facilitating independent study). One of the distinctive contributions of this grammar is a series of useful lists: of the most common nouns and verbs; of Persian and Greek loan-words; of comparative words in BA and Hebrew; and of idiomatic expressions in Daniel and Ezra. S. also includes three short appendixes of non-biblical Aramaic texts with helpful notes and translations. The main disadvantage to this grammar is its textual format. Not only is the English text quite dense in places, but the font size of the Aramaic text is approximately half the size of that used in BHS and thus considerably more taxing to read. In spite of this, it is a commendable, user-friendly introduction to BA that provides a helpful supplement to existing grammars.
A.R. G
V
Biblical Hebrew: A Compact Guide is pocket-sized but comprehensive. Derived primarily from Van Pelt and Pratico's larger grammar, Basics of Biblical Hebrew (Zondervan, 2007; see B.L. 2011, pp. 212–13), it covers a great deal of Biblical Hebrew grammar in such a diminutive form. Each section is clearly laid out, not cluttered as one might expect in such limited space. The practice of using red for illustrating the relevant prefix, suffix, relevant letters and so on is extremely helpful in drawing the eye to modifications to the basic form. This neat book is perfect for second-year students and beyond and for those wishing to refresh their knowledge. Unfortunately it is not nearly as helpful for beginners. It lays out the grammar, rules and tables with notes but understandably does not include the introductory information beginners need. Like its parent book, it is also too detailed at many points for the average beginner. The size and title, and indeed price, will make it very attractive to many Biblical Hebrew students, especially beginners. However it is likely to frighten rather than encourage the very novice student. For all other Biblical Hebrew students, it will be a small handy investment.
J.A. A
W
The intention of this impressive volume is to give a state-of-the-art overview of Semitic linguistics, aimed primarily at students of linguistics. There are seven major sections, each containing subsections on relevant topics written by specialists. The first looks at the relationship between Semitic and North African languages (Old Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic/Omotic), the second at Proto-Semitic and at the classification of Semitic languages, and the third at morphological and syntactic typology. The remaining four sections cover the languages themselves, under the headings East Semitic, North-West Semitic, Languages of the Arabian Peninsula and Ethio-Semitic, with each section including not just descriptions but essays on specific issues, such as the modern re-emergence of Hebrew, the relationships of Akkadian with Sumerian and Aramaic, or the influence of European languages on Arabic. With such wide coverage, the book is an extraordinary resource and many of the essays are fascinating in their own right. There are some curious inconsistencies, however. It is understandable, for instance, that the description of Biblical Hebrew should employ a phonetic transliteration unfamiliar to most Hebraists, but odd that the section on Jewish Babylonian Aramaic should then employ the square script (sometimes with pointing), that is presumably no less unfamiliar to specialists in linguistics, while that on Christian Palestinian Aramaic uses a CPA font, without transliteration, with which almost everyone is likely to struggle. The coverage also raises some questions. There is, in fact, some information on, e.g. Moabite, although it is hard to find in the absence of a general index, but the sections on Hebrew have little or nothing on the language as it is found in ancient inscriptions or manuscripts; the focus on the Tiberian, mishnaic and modern varieties paints a strangely artificial picture.
S.D.E. W