China’s road towards sustainable development: Geography bridges science and solution

Abstract

Seventeen sustainable development goals (SDGs) were put forward at the United Nations Development Summit in 2015 when releasing “Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. However, the international community still lacks understanding of how to make a bridge between scientific research and SDGs. China has experienced 40 years of rapid economic growth and social development, which have imposed considerable challenges on sustainable development. Although many disciplines have made contributions to promoting sustainable development in China, how to bridge SDGs and scientific research is still not fully clear. In this paper, we review the contribution of geographers to this issue to provide references for further international efforts towards meeting the SDGs. We consider three aspects in particular: the sensitive process capture of regional responses and feedbacks to global change; the cognition and geographical solution of human–environment conflicts; and the mutual promotion of spatial governance and geographical practices. The contribution of geography as a discipline to the sustainable development of China is an epitome of geographers’ efforts over the world. The practices experienced in China show that geography has played an irreplaceable role in promoting sustainable development, and can deal effectively with the challenges posed to the academic community by SDGs. As a discipline, geography has been deeply integrated into sustainable development. In the future, geography should become a key discipline in integrating many disciplines involved in sustainable development studies, and provide real-time decision support systems for sustainable development by combining big data and artificial intelligence.

Keywords

Sustainable development goals climate change mitigation human–environment confliction spatial governance geography

I Significance

Achievement of the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations (UN) is greatly challenged by transforming knowledge obtained from scientific research into policymaking. The contribution of geography has an inherent advantage over other disciplines in providing multidisciplinary integrative solutions to the UN SDGs. China has experienced 40 years of rapid economic growth and social development, which have imposed considerable challenges on sustainable development. We present three aspects of work in China to show that geography as a discipline has been deeply integrated into sustainable development. The practices experienced in China show that geography has played an important role in promoting sustainable development, which is an epitome of geographers’ efforts over the world.

II Introduction

The UN Development Summit in 2015 produced a plan of action entitled “Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, which contains 17 SDGs covering economic, environmental and societal development. There are at least four aspects of these SDGs that present major challenges to the academic community: (1) the combination of natural sciences and social sciences (Gosens, 2012); (2) the docking of scientific research and decision-making (Brito et al., 2012); (3) the integration of multi-targets (Nilsson et al., 2016); and (4) the trade-off between global and regional goals (Clark, 2002).

One critical step in dealing with these challenges requires better understanding of the complex interactions between human society and earth’s surface we live on. Geography, the study of the features and dynamic interactions of the earth and its physical and anthropogenic components, is naturally tied in with SDGs and their solutions. As geography includes both physical and human elements, and therefore provides a bridge between the natural and social sciences, it has an inherent advantage over other disciplines in providing multidisciplinary integrative solutions to the UN SDGs. Furthermore, modern geography is characterized by regional integration, supported by 3S technology (remote sensing, geographic information systems and global navigation satellite systems), and is, therefore, an effective tool for the job of transforming scientific knowledge into real-world policies and decisions (Fu, 2017). Finally, geography works on multiple scales, connecting natural processes and human activities at the global and regional scales. Geographers are, therefore, well-placed to answer the call to develop scientific solutions to the UN SDGs and have a responsibility to do so.

China, the largest and most populous developing country, has enjoyed nearly 40 years of fast economic growth, which has lifted millions of people out of poverty. However, environmental pollution and ecosystem degradation are emerging as increasingly severe concerns, raising the question of whether the economic boom of the past decades is sustainable. Effective implementation of the SDGs by 2030 will be both an opportunity and a great challenge for China. An opportunity because aiming at the SDGs can help to bring about China’s economic transformation from a resource-intensive economy to one that is more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. However, the challenge for China is that, given the remarkable magnitude of the economy and the considerable regional disparity in natural conditions and economic and societal development, the implementation of the SDGs in such a short time could be very costly. Nonetheless, as the world’s second largest economy and the largest developing country, China has a crucial role to play in the attempt to meet global SDGs. Success for China in achieving the SDGs would provide a positive example and encouragement for the rest of the world.

Here, we review the academic and practical contributions of geography to forming a bridge between science and sustainable development in China to provide references for further international efforts towards meeting the SDGs. In particular, we will focus on three aspects: the sensitive process capture of regional responses and feedbacks to global change; cognition and geographical solution of human–environment conflicts; and the mutual promotion of spatial governance and geographical practices. These three aspects were chosen based on the main related SDGs, with the first one related to climate action, the second one related to clean water and sanitation, and the third one related to sustainable cities and communities, no poverty and reduced inequalities. From the geography point of view, the first and second aspects are more associated with physical geography, while the third is more associated with human geography.

III Global change and the earth-surface system: capturing sensitive processes of regional responses and feedbacks

The complexity and diversity of earth-surface patterns and processes in China leads to significant regional disparities in their interactions with the factors driving global change. The sensitive responses and feedbacks of regions can neither be captured by using a single discipline or methodology, nor by traditional data-collection methods. Chinese geographers have conducted interdisciplinary and innovative studies of the responses and adaptations of key earth-surface processes to global change (Figure 1), to determine effective methods to realize sustainable development. The branches of geography focusing on earth-surface processes are critical disciplines amongst many involved in global-change adaptation and mitigation.

Figure 1.

Geographical solutions for assessing global change at the regional scale.

1 Quantifying earth-surface system changes in the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau for sustainable water supply

The earth’s surface is undergoing rapid environmental changes at the global scale. Climate change in cold regions has been especially rapid and is having a major impact on ecosystems. In the Tibetan Plateau, for example, where ecosystem carbon and water cycles are particularly sensitive to climate change, the warming rate is twice the global average (Chen et al., 2015). The Tibetan Plateau is known as “Asia’s water tower” because it contains the headstreams of many of the major rivers in Asia (e.g. the Yangtze River, the Yellow River, the Yalu Tsangpo River) and harbors glaciers covering an area of more than 1,000,000 km² (Wu et al., 2007). Changes in climate and earth-surface processes over the Tibetan Plateau can, therefore, have profound impacts on areas far beyond its geographical boundary.

Studies of the Tibetan Plateau by Chinese geographers, made against the backdrop of global change, have revealed that earth-surface processes, including precipitation regimes, glacial dynamics and vegetation responses, display divergent geographical patterns, particularly along the north–south gradient. For example, contrasting patterns of change in precipitation (Liu and Yin, 2001), glacier mass (Yao et al., 2004, 2012a), lake levels (Song et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2013) and vegetation growth (Shen et al., 2016) have been found between the northern and southern Tibetan Plateau. Despite these contrasts, it is difficult for single-factor or single-process studies to reach a definitive conclusion regarding the mechanisms underlying the responses of the Tibetan Plateau to global change and the spatial patterns of change, given the complex interactions among the many earth-surface processes. To overcome the limitations of single-factor and single-process studies, Chinese geographers have used a multi-disciplinary approach, combining meteorology, climatology and geochemistry, to investigate the climatic mechanisms that drive regional variations in earth-surface changes over the Tibetan Plateau. The results of these studies suggest that the regional climate is jointly controlled by the Indian Monsoon and westerly winds. Global change has weakened the Indian Monsoon, but it has strengthened the westerlies, and this change underlies the north–south variation in earth-surface processes observed in the Tibetan Plateau (Yao et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2013). Furthermore, Chinese geographers have used geographical and ecological methodologies to describe the responses to global change of the most important mechanisms driving earth-surface processes (Shen et al., 2016). Through quantifying changes in the earth-surface system, strategies in terms of global-change adaptation and mitigation have been put forward not only for regional sustainable development, but also for sustainable water supply for the lower-reach regions.

2 Assessing China’s contribution to the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction policy

Assessing China’s contribution to global climate change is of critical importance as China is currently the world’s largest emitter of GHGs. In the 1980s and 1990s, Chinese geographers systematically evaluated China’s terrestrial carbon sink, and its sensitivity to various environmental factors, by using a range of data streams and methodologies such as field inventories, satellite remote sensing, earth-surface process modeling and atmospheric inversion modeling. A comprehensive and objective evaluation of China’s contribution to global climate change and its temporal evolution has been made by using historical-emission datasets, process-based models, the contribution decomposition technique and uncertainty analyses of all drivers and processes (Li et al., 2016). It has been shown that China’s current efforts toward improving air quality could reduce atmospheric aerosol emissions, weaken negative radiative forcing and thus reduce the contribution of China’s GHG emissions to global climate change. These results provide an important scientific foundation for exploring and realizing the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” for global climate change, and also provide an example to other countries of how to adopt effective emissions-reduction strategies.

China has made progress in mitigating the rapid increase of global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and global warming through its extensive afforestation and reforestation projects. These projects have significantly increased the carbon sink of China’s terrestrial ecosystems (Fang et al., 2001; Piao et al., 2009), and partially offset the country’s GHG emissions. Extensive afforestation can also influence the near-surface climate by altering the surface albedo and evapotranspiration (Peng et al., 2014), although, with current model simulations, the full climatic impacts of such changes are still uncertain. Nevertheless, Chinese geographers have investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of China’s afforestation efforts on surface temperature by devising a systematic approach that integrates multiple data streams, such as remote sensing, plantation forest inventories and meteorological data (Peng et al., 2014). These examples illustrate how Chinese geographers have been focusing on China’s ecosystems, such as forest, in their attempts to understand how ecosystems can mitigate global change. Their studies have helped derive effective solutions to alleviate the growing tension between economic growth and the sustainability of ecosystem services.

IV Cognition and geographical solution of human–environment conflicts

The importance and complexity of the human–environment relationship is increasing rapidly. Vast regional disparities make the problems associated with resources and the environment difficult to comprehend and solve. A combination of geographical methods, originating from both the natural and social sciences, can be applied to such problems to comprehensively explore the human impact on, adaptation to and improvement of the environment. This geographical approach has led to great achievements in environmental pollution control and ecological restoration in China.

1 Environmental challenges and geography-based approaches

The general geographical approach to solving environmental pollution problems can be summarized as follows: by focusing on understanding the problem and its solution, we should identify the sources of pollutants and their regional variations, understand human migration and demographic transformation processes, identify the key controlling factors, determine their impacts on ecosystems and human health, and propose measures for environmental management in line with regional sustainable development (Figure 2). Starting with the dynamic processes of immigration and urbanization, geographers calculated the impact on pollutant emissions of rural immigrants settling in urban areas, studied how exposure to pollutants causes harm to the human respiratory system and estimated the increased mortality caused by pollutant exposure (Ru et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2017). The results obtained with geographical methods could allow for a more precise evaluation of the impacts of rural–urban migration on urban air quality, help us to understand the environmental effects of urbanization and promote sustainable urbanization processes. It is difficult to achieve these outcomes using traditional assessment methods.

Figure 2.

The geographical approaches for the solution of environmental pollution problems.

2 The water crisis and comprehensive, geography-based solutions based on the water–ecology–economy relationship in drylands

Western China is relatively arid. Water is not only the key factor limiting economic development in the region, but it is also the key resource in local ecological sustainability. There are intense conflicts over the use of water in this area. Therefore, to achieve sustainable development in western China, a reasonable resource-allocation strategy must be implemented within the context of a complex water–ecology–economy system. The traditional way to assess complicated regional human–environment systems in terms of water resources and hydrology, ecology and regional economics has obvious shortcomings, in that it cannot be applied to identify relationships among key factors for sustainability and is thus unable to provide solutions. Instead, geographers study the relationship between land use and ecological problems at the regional scale to provide better solutions. For example, in a study of the Yellow River Basin, geographers have experimentally demonstrated the relationship between Loess Plateau water–soil conservation efforts and runoff and sediment transport by the Yellow River (Fu et al., 2007, 2011; Wang et al., 2017). They have confirmed that the large-scale “Grain for Green” project (Returning Farmland to Forest and Grass Project) implemented in China in 2000 has significantly increased ecosystem services in the Loess Plateau, and that vegetation restoration in the Loess Plateau has approached the maximum amount that the available water resources will permit; and this should be given serious consideration (Feng et al., 2016).

Another example of taking a regional-scale approach occurred in the Heihe River Basin, the second largest inland river basin in north-west China. Major water-resource conflicts have occurred in this region, particularly between the middle and lower reaches of the river basin. Using a systematic approach, geographers established an integrated ecology–hydrology study, involving monitoring, experiments, simulations and other methods. By incorporating the river basin, this innovative research approach has improved local understanding of water resource formation and transformation mechanisms in inland river basins, and has enabled the conditions required for sustainable regulation to be put in place. Taking an integrated river basin model as the basis of their studies, they comprehensively evaluated the sustainability of water, ecosystems and socio-economic conditions at upper, middle and lower reaches, and realized the decision supporting for river basin sustainable development (Cheng and Li, 2015; Li et al., 2018; Yao et al., 2017).

V Multi-scale and coordinated sustainable development: mutual promotion of spatial governance and geographical practices

Human geographers in China have participated in a variety of spatial planning practices at the local, regional, national and global scales. They have expanded the meaning of “human” in the context of the human–environment relationship to include cultural, institutional, technological and related factors within a theoretical sustainable development framework. This participation and increased scope has generated the knowledge and solutions necessary for achieving regional sustainable development (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Multi-scale coordination of sustainable development efforts in China: theory and practice schematic used by human geographers.

1 An urban planning system for the sustainable development of cities during rapid urbanization

By studying the mechanisms underlying urbanization, we can better understand and promote sustainable development at the city level. Geographers have been calling for a rational approach to coordination with respect to city size, urban planning and industrial restructuring and upgrading of urban areas, based on key concepts and ideas such as resource availability and the carrying capacity of the environment (Fang and Wang, 2013; Song et al., 2011).

For example, geographers have stressed the importance of water resources for the urbanization process in general, and for determining city size in particular. This emphasis on the importance of water resources has led to a series of principles underpinning urban planning, centered around the idea of “determining the population size according to water capacity, determining the industry size according to water capacity, determining the city size according to water capacity”. These principles have also been incorporated into the 13th five-year plan in China, which highlights not only the interaction between urbanization and water resources, but also the need for a balance between residential space and that assigned for water bodies (Liu, 2010; Liu and Yang, 2012).

Another example can be found in China’s land-use planning, which is conducted mainly by geographers. Resource availability and the carrying capacity of the environment have informed the borders of construction land and the general approach to zoning. This approach is necessary because some of China’s large cities have expanded so quickly that economic development is posing serious challenges with respect to resource availability and the carrying capacity of the environment. Geographers have proposed a number of indicators to evaluate, control and optimize land-use patterns. The protection of land for agriculture has been added to the agenda of governmental institutions at various levels (Li et al., 2009).

The concept of sustainable development has also informed the industrial restructuring and upgrading of Chinese cities, such that the protection of ecosystems is also considered (Zhang and Li, 2018). Geographers consider that the tension between economic development and environmental protection is of key importance for alleviating poverty in less developed areas. The term “resilient city” has been increasingly used by geographers during urban planning, and refers to the resilience of cities in the face of natural hazards (Wang et al., 2012).

It is also important that sustainable development is understood at the regional level. Human geographers are committed to examining the interactions, interconnectedness and division of labor between regions/cities, and the labor, knowledge, capital and information flows that connect regions/cities and serve as the foundation of the theoretical framework underpinning sustainable development.

Urban geographers tend to examine urban systems from a relational perspective that takes account of the interactions between cities and regions, rather than considering each city as a separate entity; in this context, the theory of the “city-region” has been proposed. Based on several practical studies and the theory of the “city-region”, urban geographers have achieved a better understanding of urban systems by exploring cities of various sizes, with different functions and internal structures (Zhang and Li, 2018). A well-designed urban system can enable resources to be efficiently allocated among cities, coordinate the various functions of cities and facilitate inter-city integration. Urban system planning was enshrined in Chinese law in 1990, and has played a crucial role in resource allocation, environmental protection and rural and urban integration (Sun et al., 2010).

More recently, geographers have moved beyond the concept of urban systems to focus more on the development and integration of urban clusters. Here, the goal is to foster sustainable development by optimizing resource allocation, the efficiency of resource utilization and the division of labor among cities. This work has been done with the aim of alleviating regional inequality. Two examples of the outcomes of such work are that some low-end industries in Beijing City are expected to relocate to other areas in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban cluster, and coordination with respect to technologies, economic development, environmental protection and inter-city collaboration amongst cities in the Yangtze River Delta urban cluster is being encouraged (Fang and Wang, 2013). An urban cluster is a complex system, such that human activity and land use in a city, which have an intrinsic tension, should not be considered separately. A holistic view of how sustainable development could be achieved throughout the whole urban cluster is of central importance.

2 Orienting regional development according to its principal function and incorporating globalization into national development

Regional economic disparities in China were relatively low-level during the period in which the overall economy was planned. They subsequently increased after China’s economic reform, before declining again, particularly after 2000 (Fan and Sun, 2008). Since the early 2000s, the Chinese central government has initiated many strategies to alleviate regional economic inequality and promote coordinated regional development. Some examples include the “Western Development” strategy, the “Revitalize Northeast China” initiative and the “Rise of Central China” strategy. The idea of coordinated development has also been included in the 13th five-year plan as one of five development goals aimed at reducing regional economic disparities and nurturing inter-regional collaboration. One way to achieve this goal is through the implementation of major function oriented zoning (MFOZ).

The concept of MFOZ, based on the regional function theory, was proposed by geographers to optimize national-level spatial planning and promote sustainable development (Fan, 2015). On the one hand, MFOZ focuses on the constraints imposed on regional economic development by resource storage and environmental protection initiatives, and can be seen as the cornerstone of regional sustainable development. On the other hand, MFOZ also stresses the importance of acknowledging regional variations in terms of environmental conditions and resource availability, and the need to avert “one-size-fits-all” policies.

Based on the theory of MFOZ, Chinese geographers have assigned certain major functions to each large region of China, and divided each region into four subregions in which development will be optimized, encouraged, controlled and forbidden, respectively (Fan, 2015). The theory of MFOZ also informs the “ecosystem–economic system–social system” model, in which the proportion of each component changes over time and varies across regions, thus underlining the necessity to avoid “one-size-fits-all” policies in the pursuit of sustainable development (Fan, 2015).

Chinese geographers have also realized that global factors, and how they interact with national-, regional- and city-level factors are of importance. Global factors are particularly pertinent in China, where rapid export-oriented industrialization has occurred in the last few decades. Extra-regional influences, in the form of direct foreign investment, imports and exports, have enabled Chinese firms to upgrade and promote their productivity, but this expansion has often placed increasing pressure on the local environment (He et al., 2012; Mao and He, 2017). These extra-regional influences should, therefore, be considered when discussing local sustainable development. Geographers have also considered the influence and inner structure of global production, innovation, city and trade networks, by examining the flow of products, technologies, talent and capital at the global level. Here, the aim is to adhere to a greener development trajectory, while keeping the bigger picture of economic growth in mind (Gosens and Lu, 2014; Gosens et al., 2015).

Some Chinese geographers have a constant desire to rethink the limitations of neo-liberal globalism. They tend to critique its negative impacts on sustainable development and direct more attention toward mutually beneficial collaborations at the global level, which has led to the championing of the idea of “inclusive globalization”. These geographers argue that globalization should be regulated and governed to constrain its negative effects, such as pollution transfer from the global north to the global south. Chinese geographers with this global perspective have pioneered the “One Belt One Road” strategic initiative.

VI Sustainable development is taking geography into a new era

Geography focuses on relationships, and especially the human–environment relationship. Geographical research is characterized by openness, with attention focused on territorial differentiation and relationships at multiple scales. Based on the concepts of systematicness, regionality, intersectionality and practicality, geography provides a natural bridge between knowledge and solutions (Castree, 2015; Fu, 2017; Leng and Song, 2005). Geography can serve as a key discipline in sustainability science by providing a comprehensive predictive analysis of changes in the elemental, spatial and temporal dimensions of the earth-surface system, and a systematic interpretation of the relationships between human and natural systems (National Research Council, 2010).

The contribution of geography to China’s sustainable development is a microcosm of a possible scenario taking place worldwide. In China, the field of geography has played a unique role in tackling the problem of sustainable development. Geography has also greatly contributed to linking the natural and social sciences, facilitating research and practical decision-making, achieving multiple objectives and evaluating the trade-off between global and regional goals. Thus, geography promotes the accurate identification of problems and provides a pathway for meeting the SDGs (Figure 4). Among the 17 SDGs, clean water and sanitation, sustainable cities and communities, no poverty and reduced inequalities are great challenges for developing countries such as China. In developed countries less challenged by these SDGs, geographers are working on constructing a critical geography of consumption for sustainable development (Hobson, 2003).

Figure 4.

Schematic showing how geography serves as a bridge between science and sustainable development.

With further developments in science and technology, the field of geography will encounter new opportunities and challenges with respect to realizing sustainable development. There are two main issues to consider here:

Multidisciplinary integration. Geography is a discipline that is deeply connected with sustainable development. However, the most effective way to establish geography as the key pillar of sustainable development in a multidisciplinary context is unclear.

Real-time decision support. The development of remote sensing technology and the proliferation of ground-based observations has produced huge amounts of terrestrial-surface data. The concepts of the “intelligent city” and “intelligent lifestyle” are changing the character of the human–environment relationship and have highlighted the issue of how to combine big data, artificial intelligence and socioeconomic development plans in a way that will provide real-time decision support for regional sustainable development.

Novel scientific and practical solutions are needed to allow global geographers and scholars working in related disciplines to address the UN SDGs and ensure sustainable development is achieved at the global scale.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Hongyan Liu

Jian Peng

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