Coastal dune mobility over the past century: A global review

Abstract

The mobility of coastal dunes is characterised by bio-geomorphological responses related to change in boundary conditions, particularly sediment supply, wind and vegetation cover, as well as human activities. There remains uncertainty regarding the relative importance of these drivers on dune mobility at a global scale. In this study, trends and dominant drivers of coastal dune mobility are synthesised through the literature review focusing on shifts in dune mobility over the last century (1870–2018). In total, 176 individual dunes, with 55 dunes from the Europe-Mediterranean area, 23 from Africa, 30 from North America, 23 from South America, 20 from Oceania and 23 from Asia, are reviewed in this work. The results show that there is a worldwide trend of dune stabilisation, with 93% (164 out of 176) of the reviewed sites showing a loss of bare sand area due to an increase in vegetation cover and urbanisation expansion. Multiple factors have contributed to the stabilisation process, including (a) land-use change such as the change of traditional farming practises, coastal urbanisation and tourism development; (b) dune stabilisation projects; (c) sediment decline caused by the riverine and coastal constructions; and (d) change in climate (i.e. the decrease in windiness, and the increase in temperature and rainfall) and storms. Our results suggest human intervention played a dominant role in altering dune mobility for most dunes during the past century, while climate and storms are also important drivers, especially for dune sites with limited human activities.

Keywords

Coastal dunes dune mobility human activity climate storm

I Introduction

Dune systems are important landforms occupying a large part of the world’s coastline. The evolution of coastal dunes occurs over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales (Figure 1): from the instantaneous transport of individual sand grains (Bauer et al., 2009; Jackson and Cooper, 1999), to event-driven changes such as dune erosion by storms (Claudino-Sales et al., 2008; Davidson-Arnott et al., 2012), foredune development over years to decades (Levin et al., 2017; Ollerhead et al., 2013) through to coastal plain evolution on centennial to millennial scales (Clemmensen et al., 2009; Oliver and Woodroffe, 2016; Oliver et al., 2018; Sherman and Bauer, 1993). All these scale-based dynamics are moderated by the system boundary conditions.

Figure 1.

Spatial and temporal scales involved in coast morphological evolution (modified after Cowell and Thom, 1994). On the instantaneous scale, morphological evolution is forced by primary agents, such as wind; on the event scale, a single event such as a storm is the main force; on the engineering/historical scale, geomorphology involves composite evolution over many fluctuations of boundary conditions; on the geological scale, morphology is a response to mean trends in environmental conditions.

Sediment supply, wind and vegetation are the three principle boundary conditions for dune system formation and development (Aagaard et al., 2007; Costas et al., 2012, 2016; Delgado-Fernandez and Davidson-Arnott, 2011; Hesp, 2013; Psuty and Silveira, 2010; Pye, 1983). Other factors like storms and sea-level changes also impact dune mobility through shifts in sediment supply and vegetation (Feagin et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2010). Fluctuations in boundary conditions drive changes in dune mobility through time. On a decadal scale, the net result is that dune mobility spans a continuum: from completely bare sand and, therefore, highly mobile, to entirely vegetated and stable surfaces (Hesp and Thom, 1990; Levin et al., 2008; Tsoar, 2005).

Over the past century, human activities have played an increasingly important role in altering dune mobility (Nordstrom, 1994). For example, afforestation programmes have accelerated in dune stabilisation in several countries (Avis, 1989; Reckendorf et al., 1985), while overgrazing and trampling have destroyed vegetated surfaces, resulting in dune mobilisation (Arens et al., 2007; Delgado-Fernandez et al., 2019a; Hesp et al., 2010; Konlechner et al., 2014, 2015). Urbanisation and coastal management have also altered dune mobility through land-use change (Hernández-Cordero et al., 2018; Malavasi et al., 2013; Marcomini et al., 2017; Sytnik and Stecchi, 2015).

Alternatively, several studies have focused on the role of climate as a principal driver of increases in dune stability (Da Silva and Hesp, 2013; Jackson and Cooper, 2011). For example, a recent study shows a global ‘greening’ (increased vegetation cover) of coastal dunes since 1984 (Jackson et al., 2019). This stabilisation was attributed to the changes in climate and atmospheric composition (N, P, CO₂); however, this study only considered dune sites with limited or no human intervention. Globally, many dunes are situated in coastal environments where human impact has occurred over centuries. Human interventions on the coast have intensified over the past century, and, moreover, there is no indication that these activities will cease (Nordstrom, 1994).

Dune mobility cannot be directly related to a perturbation in a single boundary condition because dune activity is an integrated biogeomorphological response to all boundary conditions and human disturbance (Delgado-Fernandez et al., 2019a). In many instances there is a lag between an event and the subsequent landform response (Houser et al., 2015; Pickart, 2013); and geomorphological responses themselves are nonlinear to boundary condition changes (Cowell and Thom, 1994; Tsoar, 2005; Yizhaq et al., 2007). This complexity has meant it has not been possible to quantitively determine the impact of potential drivers on dune mobility in a short-term time. Therefore, this review sets out to explore the dynamics of dunes either with considerable human activities or rare/limited human interventions across the globe on a decadal scale to identify: (a) whether there are global trends of dune mobility during the past century and (b) the dominant factors that have driven the contemporary landform stability.

II Methods

This study utilises existing empirical studies to synthesise the extent and causes of global coastal dune mobility. Relevant studies were identified through Web of Science (Core Collection database) using the search parameters ‘TI=((coast* dune$ OR coast* sand$ dune$ OR coast* dunefield$ OR coast* dune field$) NOT (desert dune$ OR Mars)) AND TS=(“*stabili*” OR “*moil*” OR “*activat*” OR “fixation” OR “*vegetat*” OR rainfall OR storm$ OR climat* OR wind$)) AND LANGUAGE: (English) AND DOCUMENT TYPES: (Article) AND Timespan=All years (1900-2020)’. All the returned papers were reviewed and those that did not explicitly address the change in dune mobility were omitted. Additional articles were collected by snowball sampling (by tracking the references at the back of relevant papers).

In the reviewed articles, changes in dune mobility were mainly identified by the comparison of the earlier and recent dune landforms based on aerial photos, satellite images, field surveys, postcards and photos. Information from other sources (i.e. the dune stabilisation handbook) was also used to describe the mobility change for some cases in the articles.

For this study, three dune mobility trends were defined. Specifically, dune stabilisation was defined where there is a loss in bare sand area and/or an increase in vegetation regardless of the method used to identify these changes; dune mobilisation was defined where there is a gain in bare sand area and/or a loss in vegetation; otherwise, we labelled the dune as little change in dune mobility. For dunes with different patterns in mobility change through time, only net change from the earliest year to the latest year was considered in this work. In addition, dune sites were divided into two categories. If human activities (including farming, grazing, recreation, urbanisation, revegetation, revegetation) took place on the dune, we marked this site as a human-impacted dune with considerable human interventions; otherwise, the site was labelled as a natural dune with rare/limited human intervention. Location, study period, mobility trend and the considered drivers for each dune site (if available) were collected from the literature and compared with their mobility trends.

III Global trends of coastal dune mobility

The literature review returned information on 176 individual dune systems, with 55 dunes located on the Europe-Mediterranean coast, 23 on the African coast, 30 on North America, 23 from South America, 20 from Oceania and 23 from Asia (Figure 2; Table 1). Among these dunes, most sites (82% or 144 out of 176) were affected by human activities, and 32 dune sites were considered to have rare or limited human intervention (Table 1). The period over which dunes were studied in the reviewed articles covered a wide range, from 1870 to 2018, with most studies focusing on shifts in dune mobility between 1940 and 2000 (Figure 3). Compared with the span from 1984 to 2017 in the study by Jackson et al. (2019), the average span of each study was 49 years in this work, thus allowing for multi-decadal shifts in dune mobility to be evaluated.

Figure 2.

Global distribution of reviewed dune sites from the literature. (Black dots and red symbols present dune sites with stabilising and mobilising trends, respectively; and blue triangles show the dunes with little change in dune mobility.) For interpretation of the references to colours in this figure legend, refer to the online version of this article.

Table 1.

Numbers of reviewed dune sites from different regions.

Regions	Mobility trend			Human intervention		Total
Regions	Stabilisation	Little change	Mobilisation	Considerable	Rare/limited	Total
Europe-Mediterranean	53	0	2	40	15	55
Africa	23	2	0	20	5	25
North America	29	1	0	26	4	30
South America	18	5	0	17	6	23
Oceania	20	0	0	18	2	20
Asia	21	0	2	23	0	23
Total	164	8	4	144	32	176

Figure 3.

Time spans of coastal dunes studied by reviewed articles in different regions. (The horizontal bars show the studied time span of dunes; colours refer to different trends of dune mobility.) For interpretation of the references to colours in this figure legend, refer to the online version of this article.

Overall, there is an increase in dune stability on a global scale during the past century (Figure 2), consistent with the results of Jackson et al. (2019). Specifically, 164 dunes (or 93% of the reviewed dune sites) showed a stabilisation trend, 10 dunes showed little change in dune mobility and two dunes showed a mobilisation trend (Table 1). More details of mobility changes and specific drivers are reviewed by different geographical regions in the following section.

IV Regional patterns of dune mobility

1 Europe-Mediterranean

Coastal dunes fringe large sections of the shorelines of Europe, with a total area of over 5300 km² (Doody, 2008). These dunes experienced a widespread trend of stabilisation during the last century (Figure S1, supplemental material). For example, most of the active dunes in Iceland have increased in stability since 1907 as a result of planting and prohibition of grazing (Runólfsson, 1987). In the UK, previous mobile dunes caused by agricultural practises have shifted toward increased stability since the 1940s (Bailey and Bristow, 2004). For example, dunes in Wales showed a decline in bare sand area by an average of 82% between the 1940s and 2009, ranging from 41% at Gronant Dunes and Talacre Warren to 97% at Kenfig Burrows (Pye et al., 2014). Mobile dune area at Portstewart in Northern Ireland reduced by 86–96% during 1964–2004, and similar reductions by 51–84% were also observed at another 10 dune sites in the north and west Ireland in 1995–2005 (Jackson and Cooper, 2011).

In Denmark, about half the dunes on the west coast had shifted from a mobile to a forested state between the 1850s and 1930s (Clemmensen and Murray, 2006; Clemmensen et al., 2014). The large dune Råbjerg Mile on Skagen Odde was the only dune remaining active in Denmark, which also showed an increase in vegetation cover from 29% in 1887 to 94% (Anthonsen et al., 1996). Similarly, most Polish dunes have been stabilised by marram planting and afforestation since the late 19th century (Łabuz et al., 2018), and the only remaining mobile dune (the Łeba Sandbar dune in Figure S1) also showed a 54% reduction in the area of bare sand during 1932–2006 (Peyrat et al., 2009). In the Netherlands, a large extent of mobile dunes have been stabilised by forests and marram since the 1900s (Doody, 2008; Jungerius and Van der Meulen, 1988; Van Dijk, 1992). In Belgium, 37% of the mobile dunes have been lost to urbanisation since the beginning of the 20th century, whilst the rest were almost completely vegetated by the 1980s (De Raeve, 1989; Provoost and Van Landuyt, 2001).

Aquitaine in southwestern France has the largest dune system in Europe. Today, the dunes there are almost completely stabilised due to the extensive planting of marine pines in the first half of the 19th century (Clarke et al., 2002; Paskoff, 2001). The largest mobile dune in Spain (the Doñana dune system in Figure S1) also showed a decrease in dune mobility during 1956–1999 (Doody, 2008; Muñoz-Reinoso, 2018; Ojeda et al., 2005). Similar stabilisations are found in the Cíes Islands (Costas et al., 2006), Traba (González-Villanueva et al., 2013), along the Catalan coastline (Garcia-Lozano and Pintó, 2018) and on the Canary Islands (Hernández-Cordero et al., 2018). However, two transgressive dunes in southern Spain, namely the Bolonia dune and the Valdevaqueros dune (Figure S1), have shown increased mobility in recent decades (1974–2011) due to the unlimited sediment availability from the beach (Navarro-Pons et al., 2016).

Dune stabilisation also occurred along the Mediterranean coast. Dunes in the northeast and central Italy showed a 75–80% loss to urban expansion and tourism development since the 1950s (Miccadei et al., 2011; Sytnik and Stecchi, 2015). In Turkey, the Kapiköy dune in the south was highly active prior to the 1970s, but it is now stabilised by exotic forest (Akça et al., 2010). Other cases with a reduction in bare sand area were reported in Kemer and Tuzla (Çakan et al., 2011; Kemal Sönmez et al., 2009). Increase of dune stability in Israel (i.e. dunes in Ashdod-Nizanim) started since the 1940s, attributed to the land-use change combined with a decrease in windiness (Kutiel et al., 2004; Levin and Ben-Dor, 2004). Dunes in Egypt, which were active in 1955, had been removed or replaced by summer resorts and other infrastructure by 2003 (El Banna, 2004). Dunes in north Libya also showed a stabilisation trend from the early 19th century to 1984, followed by deforestation during 1984–2016 (Alsoul, 2016).

2 Africa

Dunes occur along more than 80% of the shoreline in South Africa, and they were largely mobile around the mid-18th century (Harris et al., 2011; Tinley, 1985). These dunes had increased in stability since the 1830s, following the commencement of a systematic dune stabilisation program (Avis, 1989). The earliest organised dune stabilisation efforts began in 1845 in the Western Cape with the sowing of seed and planting of seedlings directly in the sand, followed by afforestation combined with the spreading of city refuse and the large planting of marram grass (Avis, 1989, 1995). By the end of the 20th century, about 40% (1300 km out of 3110 km) of the South African coast had been stabilised (Figure S2, supplemental material) (Hertling and Lubke, 1999; Tinley, 1985). In Mozambique, dunes along the coast of Gaza province were also well-vegetated and fixed with human constructions for some locations (Miguel and Castro, 2018). Increases in dune mobility were also observed in Essaouira (Morocco), Mudug (Somalia), Port Elizabeth and Arniston (South Africa), and change in climate and atmospheric nutrients was cited as the main driver (Jackson et al., 2019). A few dunes, including the Bazaruto dune and Maputo dune in Mozambique and the Alexandria dune in South Africa, are still largely active today (Illenberger and Rust, 1988; Jackson et al., 2019; Miguel and Castro, 2018).

3 North America

Large dune systems are widely distributed along the west coast (Oregon, Washington and Baja California) of the US (Figure S3, supplemental material), which have been largely stabilised since the turn of the 20th century (Carlson et al., 1991; Cooper, 1958; Reckendorf et al., 1985, 1987). For example, mobile dune in Warrenton was a concern in the early 1930s; however, it was fixed in 1940s by a stabilisation project via sand fencing and grass planting, followed by permanent stabilisation with herbaceous or woody vegetation and other land-use restrictions (Reckendorf et al., 1985). Since then, more dunes along the west coast were subsequently stabilised utilising similar methods, like the Warrenton project (Figure S3) (Reckendorf et al., 1987). A recent study, however, has demonstrated that the stabilisation of Lanphere-Ma-le’l transgressive dune system in northern California in 1948–2016 was coincident with a shift of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation from the cool to warm phase, suggesting climate has at least partly driven dune system changes here (Pickart and Hesp, 2019).

Jockey’s Ridge in North Carolina, which is the largest dune field along the east coast of the US, also showed an increase in vegetation cover and dune stability in 1932–2003 (Mitasova et al., 2005). Increase in dune stability with a reduced migrating rate was observed on dunes in Napeague and Cape Cod during the 1930s–2000s, although parts of these dunes remain active and migrating (Abhar et al., 2015; Forman et al., 2008; and Girardi Davis, 2010). Indiana Dunas on the southern shore of Lake Michigan also showed a decrease in bare sand area from 1938 to 2008, although beach erosion and accretion alternated over different periods (Kilibarda and Shillinglaw, 2015). A loss of bare sand to the shrub encroachment caused by increased temperature was also observed on Hog Island, VA, during 1984–2016 (Huang et al., 2018).

In Mexico, coastal dunes in Playa Chachalacas (Figure S3) in the central region of the Gulf of Mexico showed an increasing trend toward stability. This was promoted by a warm and wet climate, as well as impacted by human activities (breakwater construction and urbanisation) (Martínez et al., 2019).

In southwest Canada, transgressive dunes at Wickaninnish and Schooner Cove had experienced reduction in active sand surface by 28% and 30%, respectively, due to changes in management practices and a warmer and wetter climate over 34 years (Heathfield and Walker, 2011; Walker et al., 2013). Further south, dunes in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve have been stabilised by marram grass coupled with similar shifts in climate (Darke et al., 2013). On the east coast, the Sable Island dunes were mobile and almost free of vegetation prior to the 1950s (Cameron, 1965); however, dune mobility has decreased by 50% following an increase in vegetation cover (Tissier et al., 2013). The Greenwich Dunes on Prince Edward Island also showed increased stability over the period 1939–2005 (Mathew et al., 2010).

4 South America

Transgressive dunes are widely distributed along the Brazil coast (Figure S4, supplemental material). Most dunes along the southeast Brazil coast have increased in stability over the past century. For example, the coast of Santa Catarina State and Rio Grande do Sul State in southeastern Brazil were almost free of vegetation before the 1950s, but all of these dunes showed an increase in stability as vegetation coverage expanded (Da Silva and Hesp, 2013; Jackson et al., 2019; Martinho et al., 2010; Mendes and Giannini, 2015; Pinto et al., 2015; Seeliger et al., 2000). The large dunefield in Pequenos Lençois Maranhenses, northeast Brazil, has also shown a stabilising trend over the past 30 years (Jackson et al., 2019); Jenipabu’s Environmental Protection Area (Pinto and Fernandes, 2011) was similar. In contrast, some mobile dunes can be found in northeast Brazil, as well as near the São Francisco river mouth, due to the strong onshore winds there (Barbosa and Dominguez, 2004; Jimenez et al., 1999). In Argentina, dunes along the northern Buenos Aires coast have been stabilised from 1956 to 2013 due to the humid climate and human activities (urbanisation and afforestation) (Marcomini et al., 2017). Similar stabilisation has also occurred along the south coast of Buenos Aires since the 1940s (Amiotti et al., 2013). However, dunes on the Valdes Peninsula drylands are still active, with little change in the bare sand surface during 1969–2002, due to the intensive grazing there (Del Valle et al., 2008). The dunes of Ritoque in the central coast of Chile also experienced stabilisation during the last century, caused by planting, urbanisation and road construction (Nehren et al., 2016). The construction of artificial dunes by fencing, followed by marram grass planting for dune stabilisation was also conducted in some sites along the central Chilean coast (Castro, 1988).

5 Oceania

Extensive dunes occur along the coastline of Australia, covering an area of 2000 km² (Short, 1988) (Figure S5, supplemental material). Dune stability has shown an increasing trend in Australia. This is well observed on Stradbroke Island, due to planting (Barr and McKenzie, 1976); Moreton Island and Fraser Island in Queensland, as a result of reduced windiness (Levin, 2011; Levin et al., 2017); the New South Wales coast due to dune stabilisation programs (NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, 2001); and southern Australia, due to the decline of the rabbit population (Moulton et al., 2019). In New Zealand, the total area of mobile dunes was about 1300 km² in the 1900s, with little change before the 1950s (Cockayne, 1911; Hilton, 2006). However, mobile dunes declined by 70% mainly during the second half of the 20th century as a result of marram grass planting and afforestation (Hilton, 2006). Bare sand area declined from 1294 km² in the 1950s to 389 km² in the 1990s, with the most significant reduction observed in regions of Manawatu (by 81.3%), Tasman (by 78.2%) and Northland (by 76.3%) (Hesp, 2001; Hilton, 2006). Another case can be found in Farewell Spit, where dunes showed a 16% reduction in the bare sand area during 1950–2004 due to the expansion of exotic vegetation (Tribe and Kennedy, 2010).

6 Asia

There are 133 dunes along the South Korean coast (MOE, 2001) (Figure S6, supplemental material). The Shinduri dune in the west coast is the largest dune in South Korea, which has largely been replaced by tourism urbanisation during the last few decades (Kim and Ewing, 2006; You et al., 2018). Kangneung dune on the east coast also showed a decrease in bare sand area by 61% in the 1910s–2000s, as a result of agriculture, land reclamation and the construction of power plants (Choi et al., 2007). Coastal dunes in China have been stabilised by planting and afforestation since the 1950s. For example, dune in Qinhuangdao, which is the largest coastal dune in China, has been gradually stabilised by afforestation, with an increase in forest cover from 8% in 1956 to 70% in the 2010s (Cai and Cai, 1983; Qi et al., 2004). More stabilised dunes can be found along the coast in Fujian (Chen and Zhu, 1996; Chen et al., 1992; Hu et al., 2013), Taiwan and Hainan Island (Figure S6) (Ho et al., 2017; Qu et al., 2013; Shih et al., 1994; Wu and Wu, 1987). Increases in coastal dune stability were observed in central Vietnam after a ban on the overuse of dune areas in 1995, followed by the tree plantation in 1997 (Hoang et al., 2010; Nehren et al., 2017). Stabilisation was also observed in southeast Vietnam as a result of land reclamation for agricultural use (Quang-Minh et al., 2010; Sharma, 1990), grass planting (Nehren et al., 2017; Tan Van et al., 2003) and tourism development (Geissler et al., 2011). Increase of dune stability in Parangtritis, Indonesia, was caused by tourism urbanisation since the 1980s (Nehren et al., 2016). In India, mobile coastal dunes in the Cauvery delta were largely stabilised in 1980 and converted into plantations and cultivation lands (Alappat et al., 2011). Cultivation, recreation and sand mining activities, as well as the coastal erosion, had caused a loss of active dunes in Ovari, southeast India, during 1999–2006 (Mujabar and Chandrasekar, 2012), as well as dunes in Vengurla in western India (Noujas et al., 2019). In contrast, mobilisation was observed on two dunes in southern India during 1999–2006, due to the high local wind speed (Mujabar and Chandrasekar, 2012).

V Drivers for dune mobility changes

1 Land-use change

Land-use change, including the abandonment/change of traditional farming practices (e.g. grazing and wood gathering), urbanisation and the development of tourist infrastructure, were quite common around the world during the last century. The loss of bare sand area caused by land use change is one of the main drivers for the increase in dune stability since the beginning of the 19th century.

1.1 Change in traditional farming

Traditional farming practices, such as grazing by domestic stock, marram cutting for mat/basket making, tree falling for firewood and cultivation, have existed in coastal dune areas for centuries. These activities often destroy the vegetation cover and lead to drifting sand and migrating dunes (Blanco et al., 2008; Jenks and Brake, 2001; Del Valle et al., 2008). For example, deforestation and land overuse led to extensive mobile dunes in Europe through the 1300s–1800s (Provoost et al., 2011). During the last century, many of these activities have been abandoned or restricted to minimise sand drift in many regions. For example, the removal of livestock around 1910 is considered to have initiated dune stabilisation in Oostvoorne (the Netherlands) (Van der Maarel et al., 1985). The decreased intensity of livestock grazing (cattle, horses and sheep) has led to vegetation expansion in the Netherlands (Van Dijk, 1992). Similar patterns of dune stabilisation caused by changes in grazing pressure have been identified in Iceland (Runólfsson, 1987), Israel (Kutiel, 2001), New Zealand (Tribe and Kennedy, 2010) and India (Alappat et al., 2011). In addition, reduced grazing pressure, caused by the eradication of rabbit populations, was cited to have contributed to an acceleration of vegetation succession and dune stability in northwestern Europe and southern Australia (Moulton et al., 2019; Provoost et al., 2011).

The ‘Mawasi’ agriculture system, where inter-dune areas were cultivated by digging the sand down to the water table for irrigation, has been a traditional practice in Israel for centuries (Levin and Ben-Dor, 2004). The ending of this agricultural practice is considered as one of the main contributors to the increase of dune stability along the Israeli coast (Tsoar and Zohar, 1985). The decline in agricultural land-use was one of the drivers for dune stabilisation in central Italy during the second half of the 20th century (Malavasi et al., 2013). By contrast, in some areas, coastal dunes were reclaimed (usually combined with the use of waste and fertiliser) for cultivation, due to the increasing populations and need for agricultural land (Gadgil and Ede, 1998; Hoang et al., 2010). This process was widespread in South Korea from 1910 to 1960 (Choi et al., 2007), as well as in the past three decades in Vietnam and China (Ho et al., 2017; Hoang et al., 2010; Neve et al., 2009; Shih et al., 1994).

The establishment of national parks also contributed to dune stabilisation by excluding or limiting human disturbance in dune systems. Doñana National Park in Spain, Prince Edward Island National Park in Canada and reserves and national parks in Israel are good examples of this (Levin and Ben-Dor, 2004; Mathew et al., 2010; Vallejo Villalta and Márquez Pérez, 2006).

1.2 Urbanisation and tourism

The urbanisation of coastal regions has been widespread around the world during the last century. Urban housing, the construction of industrial infrastructure (i.e. power plants), road networks and coastal protection constructions were also developed, which has led to a loss of dune habitats along the coast. For example, city construction and its accessory facilities have occupied more than 45% of the Israeli coast due to the population increase in the last century (Golik, 1997; Kutiel, 2001). In China, lagoons and dunes along the coast have disappeared due to residential, industrial and road constructions since the 1950s. Similar urban expansion and dune loss also took place in Belgium (Provoost and Van Landuyt, 2001; Van der Biest et al., 2017), Italy (Malavasi et al., 2013), Turkey (Kemal Sönmez et al., 2009), Mexico (Martínez et al., 2014), Brazil (Marcomini et al., 2017; Mendes and Giannini, 2015) and Chile (Nehren et al., 2016).

Coastal tourism, recreational pressures and the construction of tourist facilities, which intensified towards the end of the 19th century, have caused significant destruction of coastal dunes (Alcántara-Carrió and Alonso, 2002; Sytnik and Stecchi, 2015). A loss of coastal dune by 40–80% in Greece, by >95% in Morocco and by 85% in Indonesia was caused by tourism development (Doody, 2012; El Mrini et al., 2012; Nehren et al., 2016). Besides, resorts can also alter dune mobility by impacting the aeolian dynamics – for example, a shadow zone formed at the lee side of a resort in the Canary Islands, decreasing aeolian sediment transport and resulting in the increase of dune stability (García-Romero et al., 2019; Hernández-Cordero et al., 2018). Impact of tourism development can also be found in Catalan (Spain) (González-Villanueva et al., 2013), Qinhuangdao (China) (Qi et al., 2004) and Shinduri (South Korea) (Kim et al., 2014; You et al., 2018).

2 Dune stabilisation projects

Mobile dunes and drifting sand can invade forests and farms, and can bury roads and buildings (Sherman and Nordstrom, 1994). Over the past century, therefore, legislation (i.e. controls on overgrazing, woodcutting, trampling) has been established in many countries to minimise sand drift. For example, since the establishment of Israel in 1948, dunes were protected by law and were forbidden to disturb; while no laws/rules were enacted in Egypt, and human activities (such as grazing, wood gathering and human trampling) were still allowed during the same period (Kutiel et al., 2004; Levin and Ben-Dor, 2004). This led to a contrast of vegetated dunes (with dark colour) in the Israeli side and mobile dunes (with light colour) on the Egyptian side at the Israeli–Egyptian border (Figure 4). Similar legislation on dune protection was also established in many other countries, such as in Iceland (Runólfsson, 1987), the US (Godfrey and Godfrey, 1974) and New Zealand (Wendelken, 1974).

Figure 4.

Vegetated dunes in Israeli side and mobile dunes in Egyptian side at the border area. The contrast illustrates the effect of legislation on dune management. (The image is referred from Yizhaq et al. (2007) and the arrow shows the prevailing wind direction.)

Along with the legislation, dune stabilisation projects were conducted worldwide to halt drift sand and mobile dunes, which played an important role in the dune stabilisation process. The main measures include grass planting and afforestation. Early attempts at dune stabilisation took place in western Europe, mainly by planting marram grass and maritime pines (Doody, 2012). Later, similar experience was well summarised in South Africa (Avis, 1989; Schwendiman, 1977), the US (Birkemeier et al., 1984; Reckendorf et al., 1985), Australia and New Zealand (Gadgil and Ede, 1998; Wendelken, 1974). In brief, fertilised sand-binding grasses (i.e. Ammophila arenaria) were used for the initial stabilisation stage, followed by the seeding of secondary permanent grasses and legumes when the sand movement slows down. Finally, woody plants and afforestation were introduced after the preliminary stabilisation was completed.

Dune stabilisation projects have been effective in stabilising mobile dunes, and similar efforts were conducted in many countries, including China (i.e. Casuarina equisetifolia) (Xie and Li, 2001; Xie et al., 2008), South Korea (i.e. Pinus thunbergii and Pinus densiflora) (Choi et al., 2013; You et al., 2018), Brazil (Pinus and Eucalyptus species) (Da Silva and Hesp, 2013), Chile (i.e. Ammophila arenaria, Pinus radiata, Pinus halepensis, Casuarina cunninghamiana, as well as Eucaplytus and Acacia species) (Nehren et al., 2016) and Vietnam (such as vetiver grass) (Tan Van et al., 2003).

One problem with these dune stabilisation projects is that exotic species were widely used, many of which are invasive. This is an important driver for dune stabilisation in some regions, but, on the other hand, it also has adverse impacts on the indigenous species, mainly causing a loss of native species. For instance, two Ammophila species (A. arenaria and A. breviliigulata) had colonised the entire Pacific coast within a few decades, resulting in dune stabilisation (Hacker et al., 2012; Heathfield and Walker, 2011). However, the invasion resulted in the decline of several endemic dune plants along the northwest America coast, such as pink sand verbena (Abronia umbellata ssp. Breviflora) (Hacker et al., 2012). Similar invasions of marram grass (A. arenaria), sea-wheat grass (Thinopyrum junceiforme) and bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata) were reported in New Zealand and Australia (Hilton et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 2006). Due to the invasion of Acacia species, the soil nutrient concentrations increase by two-fold on the Robberg Peninsula, South Africa, leading to a reduction of the indigenous dune species, which had adapted to a nutrient-impoverished environment (Musil and Midgley, 1990). Exotic invasive black pines (P. thunbergii), which have been introduced to South Korea for coastal dune stabilisation since the 20th century, and are now the most dominant species on the coast there, covering approximately 95% of the total dunes (Kim, 2005; MOE, 2001).

Combined with planting projects, sand-trapping fences had also been used to assist dune stabilisation because they can cut off the supply of sand to inland areas, as well as break the force of winds at ground level (Pelletier et al., 2009; Wendelken, 1974). For example, bamboo fences worked very well to trap the sand in Changle dunes along the coast of China (Huang and Yim, 2014; Lin and Liou, 2013; Liu, 2007). Similar fencing was also widely used in many cases in Spain for dune stabilisation (Gómez-Pina et al., 2002). More than 1000 km of sand fencing was installed on the Jorkey’s Ridge dunefield in the US to slow dune migration (Mitasova et al., 2005). More cases can be found in New Zealand (Wendelken, 1974), Egypt (El Fishawi and El Askary, 1981), South Africa (Avis, 1995) and Japan (Cong, 1991; Zhu and Yang, 1987) and India (Mascarenhas, 2002, 2008).

3 Sediment decline

Sediment supply from the coast is the sand source for the formation and growth of coastal dunes (Davidson-Arnott and Law, 1996). Change in sediment supply can modify dune mobility. Specifically, high sand supply can bury vegetation, resulting in drifting sand and mobile dunes, while low sand input can encourage vegetation survival, leading to an increase in dune stability (Pye and Blott, 2017).

Fluvial sediments are also an important sand source for coastal dunes – given that many dunes are usually associated with the estuaries/ocean outlets of large rivers or streams – such as the dunes in Oregon, US, South Africa (Avis, 1995), Copiapó region, Chile (Paskoff et al., 2010), southern Mozambique coast (Miguel and Castro, 2018) and most coastal dunes in China (Cai and Cai, 1983; Dong, 2006; Schwendiman, 1977). It is reported that there is a global decline of sediment supply from rivers to the ocean, especially since the 1950s, caused by the sediment retention of reservoirs (Syvitski et al., 2005; Syvitski and Milliman, 2007; Vörösmarty et al., 2003). It is estimated that there are more than 48,000 large dams globally, with more than 2000 large dams under construction (Syvitski and Kettner, 2011). Large reservoirs, on average, can trap more than 90% of the river sediment to the coast. For example, the construction of the Low and High Aswan Dam (in 1902 and 1964, respectively) in Egypt entrapped almost all (>98%) sediment behind the dam (Stanley and Warne, 1993), which contributed to dune stabilisation along the eastern Egyptian coast and the Israeli coast (Kutiel, 2001; Muhs et al., 2013). A similar impact of hydraulic projects on dune stabilisation also occurred in Turkey (Berberoğlu et al., 2003), China (Qi et al., 2004) and Vietnam (Sharma, 1992), where large amounts of riverine sediment were trapped behind the dams.

Coastal structures such as the dykes, groynes and breakwaters can also modify the littoral drift (Nordstrom, 1994). Alongshore sediment deposition usually occurs in the updrift side of the structures, while erosion takes place in the downdrift side, leading to sand deficient and dune stabilisation on the back of the beach (Martínez et al., 2019). Dune stabilisation, partly facilitated by the coastal structures, was reported in the Netherlands (Aagaard et al., 2007), Spain (Rodríguez-Ramírez et al., 2008), Brazil (Martinho et al., 2010) and Mexico (Martínez et al., 2019) with a declined alongshore sediment transport.

4 Changes in climate

Climate was cited as an important driver for dune stabilisation in different parts of the world. In most cases, it is hard to quantify climate impact on dune evolution since climatic factors work in combination with human activities to drive dune stabilisation. For example, most of the Danish dunes were active, and plantation and afforestation were not successful around 1820 when the climate was very stormy (Clemmensen et al., 2014). However, successful afforestation and dune stabilisation were achieved when the storminess decreased around 1900, indicating the impact of wind on dune mobility (Clemmensen and Murray, 2006; Clemmensen et al., 2014). Similar results – that is, that a combination of change in climate (i.e. less windy, more humid and warmer) and human activities (i.e. removal of grazing and afforestation) led to increases in vegetation and dune stability – were reported for dunes in the UK (Pye et al., 2014; Pye and Blott, 2017; Rhind et al., 2001), France (Ruz et al., 2005), Spain (González-Villanueva et al., 2013), Israel (Levin and Ben-Dor, 2004), India (Jayangondaperumal et al., 2012; Kunz et al., 2010) and China (Hu et al., 2013) during the past century.

Climate is also suggested to be the dominant driver for increases in dune stability in areas where human activities were limited or rare. For example, most dunes in Ireland are isolated and free of human activities. Dune stabilisation there has been coincident with increased temperature and longer growing season since the 1960s, indicating that climate rather than human intervention is the controlling factor for dune mobility change (Jackson and Cooper, 2011). Similarly, dune stabilisation on some islands in Brazil was linked to changes in rainfall and wind speed (Da Silva and Hesp, 2013). Shrub encroachment on Hog Island was caused by local climate warming (Huang et al., 2018). More dune sites with rare human intervention around the globe show a global ‘greening’, driven by a combination of climate change (increasing rainfall, warming and reduced windiness) and increased atmospheric nutrients deposition (Jackson et al., 2019).

Other climatic factors, such as storms and sea/water level change, are also important drivers for dune mobility change. The frequency and magnitude of storms controls the spatial-temporal pattern of foredune erosion and the sediment transport process (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018). Dune erosion caused by storms occurs within hours or days, but the recovery can take years to decades (Houser et al., 2015). The most recent sand invasion during the Little Ice Age in Europe was caused by an increase in North Atlantic storminess (Clarke and Rendell, 2009). Dune erosion and accretion in the UK was associated with the frequency and magnitude of storms (Pye and Blott, 2008). The overall decline of storminess in the 20th century contributed to dune stabilisation in Northern Europe (Provoost et al., 2011). Dune migration at southern Lake Michigan was linked to the frequency and intensity of the storm, rising lake level, higher temperature and moisture (Kilibarda and Shillinglaw, 2015). An intense storm in 1932 caused foredune destruction and a 300–600-m inland migration of transgressive dunes in east Canada, and the recovery took about four decades (Mathew et al., 2010). Similarly, storms caused coastal dune erosion in southern USA as well as in northern France, and post-storm recovery took about 10 years (Héquette et al., 2019; Houser et al., 2015). Dune stabilisation on Fraser Island in Australia was coincident with increased cyclone frequency and intensity (Levin, 2011).

Future sea-level rise will inevitably cause marine flooding, coast erosion and constrain the area for dune plants (Feagin et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2010; Nicholls and Cazenave, 2010). Mobile dunes could be vulnerable to coastal erosion and flooding. However, vegetation on fixed dunes can reduce scarp retreat, wave run up erosion and dune structure failure (Delgado-Fernandez et al., 2019b; Feagin et al., 2019; Maximiliano-Córdova et al., 2019; Sigren et al., 2014). Furthermore, it was also suggested that the effects of sea-level rise may be obscure in developed areas since human efforts may protect and maintain a stable resource base in some degree (Nordstrom, 1994).

Similar to the global ‘greening’ observed by Jackson et al. (2019), a global increase in dune stability was found in this study, although we considered a longer time span and a larger number of dune sites with either considerable or rare/limited human interventions. Jackson et al. (2019) elucidated the impact of change in climate and atmospheric deposition on dune mobility, by considering dunes only from the natural coast with rare human interventions. However, human activities are considered to be the main factor driving shifts in dune mobility for most dunes in this study, although climate has also helped to promote dune stabilisation (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Main drivers for dune stabilisation in this study. The increase in stability of most dunes is dominated by human activities, including land-use change, stabilisation project and sediment decline caused by hydraulic constructions. Change in climate also plays an important role in dune stabilisation, especially for dune sites at coasts with limited human impact. However, human intervention can also reverse dune stability through vegetation removal to rejuvenate dune mobility, which has been conducted as trials or on small scales in a few countries during the past three decades.

An unintended consequence of dune stabilisation is that a loss of biodiversity has been found in the over-stabilised dune areas during the past three decades. This has led to deliberate de-stabilisation programs (e.g. mechanical removal, grazing, herbicide-based de-vegetation, hand pulling) to ‘rejuvenate’ the variability and biodiversity of dune habitats (Figure 5) (Darke et al., 2016; Konlechner et al., 2014; Pye et al., 2014). Such de-stabilisation measures have been conducted in different dune systems, including Kennemerland dune in the Netherlands (Arens et al., 2004, 2013), Nizzanim dunes in Israel (Bar, 2013), Steward Island in New Zealand (Hilton and Konlechner, 2010; Konlechner et al., 2014, 2015), Lanphere and Ma-le’l dunes in the northern California (Pickart, 2013) and Wickaninnish dunes in Canada (Darke et al., 2013, 2016). Increased dune variety and dune reactivation were observed in these dune sites after the projects. However, these ‘rejuvenation’ efforts are still quite controversial, since stabilisation could be the natural evolutionary processes taking place in the dunefields (Delgado-Fernandez et al., 2019b); besides, these deliberate de-vegetation projects were started at a small scale. There could be a re-activation trend in these sites in the future; however, a longer time is required to examine whether these projects can naturally re-mobilise the dunes on a larger scale or in the long term. In other cases where specific boundary conditions are dominant, such as the unlimited sediment supply in the southern Spain and strong winds in south India and northeast Brazil, dunes are continuing their mobility trends (Mujabar and Chandrasekar, 2012; Navarro-Pons et al., 2016; Tsoar et al., 2009).

VI Conclusions

This review shows a similar global ‘greening’ or stabilisation trend of coastal dunes, as reported by Jackson et al. (2019), by utilising a larger temporal window and more dune sites. However, most (82% or 144 out of 176) of these dune sites are impacted by human intervention, which, on the one hand, may reflect the significance of human alteration on the coast (especially in Euro-Mediterranean areas) and, on the other hand, may also cause a bias of human impact due to oversampling in these areas.

The increase in dune stability was mainly in combination with an increase in either vegetation cover or urbanisation area during the past century. The main drivers were: (a) land-use change, such as change of traditional farming, urbanisation expansion and tourism development; (b) dune stabilisation projects; (c) sediment decline caused by riverine and coastal constructs; and (d) change in climate and storminess. From all these factors, human activities are considered to be the dominant driver for dune stabilisation, while climate and storms also contribute to the increase in dune stability, especially for those remote sites with rare human intervention.

In the context of coastal urbanisation, as well as global warming and associated sea-level rise, coastlines are more vulnerable to overdevelopment and dune erosion. Mobile dunes are suggested to have a higher ecological diversity and species richness, while stabilised dunes could be more tolerant to future sea-level rise. Human intervention plays a vital role in altering dune mobility (both stabilisation and re-mobilisation). Therefore, more scientific attention and cautious measures would be needed in the near future to maintain or reverse dune mobility, as well as to maintain a balance between the services that coastal dunes can provide and the hazards they can lead to.

Supplemental material

Figure_Supplemental_Material - Coastal dune mobility over the past century: A global review

Figure_Supplemental_Material for Coastal dune mobility over the past century: A global review by Jinjuan Gao, David M. Kennedy and Teresa M. Konlechner in Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Jinjuan Gao

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References

Aagaard

Orford

Murray

(2007) Environmental controls on coastal dune formation; Skallingen Spit, Denmark. Geomorphology 83: 29–47.

Abhar

Walker

Hesp

, et al. (2015) Spatial–temporal evolution of aeolian blowout dunes at Cape Cod. Geomorphology 236: 148–162.

Akça

Kapur

Tanaka

, et al. (2010) Afforestation effect on soil quality of sand dunes. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 19: 1109–1116.

Alappat

Frechen

Ramesh

, et al. (2011) Evolution of late Holocene coastal dunes in the Cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42: 381–397.

Alcántara-Carrió

Alonso

(2002) Measurement and prediction of aeolian sediment transport at Jandia Isthmus (Fuerteventura, Canary Islands). Journal of Coastal Research 18: 300–315.

Alsoul

(2016) Deforestation in Jefara Plain, Libya: Socio-economic and policy drivers (Algarabulli District case study). PhD Thesis, Bangor University, UK.

Amiotti

Zalba

Ares

, et al. (2013) Coniferous afforestation increases soil carbon in maritime sand dunes. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 59: 289–304.

Anthonsen

Clemmensen

Jensen

(1996) Evolution of a dune from crescentic to parabolic form in response to short-term climatic changes: Råbjerg Mile, Skagen Odde, Denmark. Geomorphology 17: 63–77.

Arens

Slings

De Vries

(2004) Mobility of a remobilised parabolic dune in Kennemerland, the Netherlands. Geomorphology 59: 175–188.

10.

Arens

Slings

Geelen

, et al. (2007) Implications of environmental change for dune mobility in The Netherlands. In: International Conference on Management and Restoration of Coastal Dunes (ed. M Ambiente), Santander, Spain, pp 3–5. Santander: University of Cantabria.

11.

Arens

Slings

Geelen

, et al. (2013) Restoration of dune mobility in the Netherlands. In: Martínez

Gallego-Fernández

Hesp

(Eds.), Restoration of Coastal Dunes. Germany: Springer Verlag, pp. 107–124 (Chapter 7).

12.

Avis

(1989) A review of coastal dune stabilization in the Cape Province of South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 18: 55–68.

13.

Avis

(1995) An evaluation of the vegetation developed after artificially stabilizing South African coastal dunes with indigenous species. Journal of Coastal Conservation 1: 41–50.

14.

Bailey

Bristow

(2004) Migration of parabolic dunes at Aberffraw, Anglesey, north Wales. Geomorphology 59: 165–174.

15.

Bar

(2013) Restoration of coastal sand dunes for conservation of biodiversity: The Israeli experience. In: Martínez

Gallego-Fernández

Hesp

(Eds.), Restoration of Coastal Dunes. Germany: Springer Verlag, pp. 173–185 (Chapter 11).

16.

Barbosa

Dominguez

JML

(2004) Coastal dune fields at the São Francisco River strandplain, northeastern Brazil: Morphology and environmental controls. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29: 443–456.

17.

Barr

McKenzie

(1976) Dune stabilization in Queensland, Australia, using vegetation and mulches. International Journal of Biometeorology 20: 1–8.

18.

Bauer

Davidson-Arnott

Hesp

, et al. (2009) Aeolian sediment transport on a beach: Surface moisture, wind fetch, and mean transport. Geomorphology 105: 106–116.

19.

Berberoğlu

Alphan

Yilmaz

(2003) A remote sensing approach for detecting agricultural encroachment on the eastern Mediterranean coastal dunes of Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 27: 135–144.

20.

Birkemeier

Dolan

Fisher

(1984) The evolution of a barrier island: 1930–1980. Shore and Beach 52: 3–12.

21.

Blanco

Rostagno

Del Valle

, et al. (2008) Grazing impacts in vegetated dune fields: Predictions from spatial pattern analysis. Rangeland Ecology & Management 61: 194–203.

22.

Cai

(1983) A study of depositional causation and characteristics of coast aeolian sand in coast areas in China. Journal of Desert Research 3: 1–10.

23.

Çakan

Yilmaz

Alphan

, et al. (2011) The classification and assessment of vegetation for monitoring coastal sand dune succession: The case of Tuzla in Adana, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Botany 35: 697–711.

24.

Cameron

(1965) The shifting sands of Sable Island. Geographical Review 55: 463–476.

25.

Carlson

Reckendorf

Ternyik

(1991) Stabilizing coastal sand dunes in the Pacific Northwest. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Agriculture Handbook 687: 53.

26.

Castro

(1988) The artificial construction of foredunes and the interference of dune-beach interaction, Chile. Journal of Coastal Research 3: 103–107.

27.

Chen

Zhu

(1996) Dune formation and evolution along the south coast of Minjiang Estuary (in Chinese with English abstract). Journal of Desert Research 16: 228–234.

28.

Chen

Wang

, et al. (1992) A preliminary approach to the contributing factors of coastal Eolian landform along the coastal area of Changle and Haitan Island (in Chinese with English abstract). Journal of Fujian Normal University 8: 93–99.

29.

Choi

Kim

Jung

(2013) Adverse effect of planting pine on coastal dunes, Korea. Journal of Coastal Research 65: 909–914.

30.

Choi

Yoon

Choi

, et al. (2007) Anthropogenic geomorphological changes during the last century in the Kangneung area along the east coast of Korea. Journal of Coastal Research 50: 1015–1022.

31.

Clarke

Rendell

(2009) The impact of North Atlantic storminess on western European coasts: A review. Quaternary International 195: 31–41.

32.

Clarke

Rendell

Tastet

J-P

, et al. (2002) Late-Holocene sand invasion and North Atlantic storminess along the Aquitaine Coast, southwest France. The Holocene 12: 231–238.

33.

Claudino-Sales

Wang

Horwitz

(2008) Factors controlling the survival of coastal dunes during multiple hurricane impacts in 2004 and 2005: Santa Rosa barrier island, Florida. Geomorphology 95: 295–315.

34.

Clemmensen

Murray

(2006) The termination of the last major phase of aeolian sand movement, coastal dunefields, Denmark. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms: The Journal of the British Geomorphological Research Group 31: 795–808.

35.

Clemmensen

Hansen

Kroon

(2014) Storminess variation at Skagen, northern Denmark since AD 1860: Relations to climate change and implications for coastal dunes. Aeolian Research 15: 101–112.

36.

Clemmensen

Murray

Heinemeier

, et al. (2009) The evolution of Holocene coastal dunefields, Jutland, Denmark: A record of climate change over the past 5000 years. Geomorphology 105: 303–313.

37.

Cockayne

(1911) Report on the dune-areas of New Zealand: Their geology, botany, and reclamation. Wellington, New Zealand, Department of Lands, pp. 76.

38.

Cong

(1991) Sandy land development and use state in Tottori of Japan. Study World Desert 1: 1–7.

39.

Cooper

(1958) Coastal Sand Dunes of Oregon and Washington. Geological Society of America - Memoir 72. DOI: 10.1130/MEM72-p1.

40.

Costas

Alejo

Rial

, et al. (2006) Cyclical evolution of a modern transgressive sand barrier in Northwestern Spain elucidated by GPR and aerial photos. Journal of Sedimentary Research 76: 1077–1092.

41.

Costas

Jerez

Trigo

, et al. (2012) Sand invasion along the Portuguese coast forced by westerly shifts during cold climate events. Quaternary Science Reviews 42: 15–28.

42.

Costas

Naughton

Goble

, et al. (2016) Windiness spells in SW Europe since the last glacial maximum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 436: 82–92.

43.

Cowell

Thom

(1994) Morphodynamics of Coastal Evolution. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA: Cambridge University Press.

44.

Da Silva

Hesp

(2013) Increasing rainfall, decreasing winds, and historical changes in Santa Catarina dunefields, southern Brazil. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 1036–1045.

45.

Darke

Eamer

Beaugrand

, et al. (2013) Monitoring considerations for a dynamic dune restoration project: Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, British Columbia, Canada. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 983–993.

46.

Darke

Walker

Hesp

(2016) Beach–dune sediment budgets and dune morphodynamics following coastal dune restoration, Wickaninnish Dunes, Canada. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 41: 1370–1385.

47.

Davidson-Arnott

Law

(1996) Measurement and prediction of long-term sediment supply to coastal foredunes. Journal of Coastal Research 12: 654–663.

48.

Davidson-Arnott

Bauer

Walker

, et al. (2012) High-frequency sediment transport responses on a vegetated foredune. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 37: 1227–1241.

49.

Davidson-Arnott

Hesp

Ollerhead

, et al. (2018) Sediment budget controls on foredune height: Comparing simulation model results with field data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 1798–1810.

50.

De Raeve

(1989) Sand dune vegetation and management dynamics. In: van der Meulen

Jungerius

Visser

(eds) Perspectives in coastal dune management. Proceedings of the European Symposium Leiden, September 7–11 1987, pp. 99–109. Den Haag: SPB academic Publishing.

51.

Del Valle

Rostagno

Coronato

, et al. (2008) Sand dune activity in north-eastern Patagonia. Journal of Arid Environments 72: 411–422.

52.

Delgado-Fernandez

Davidson-Arnott

(2011) Meso-scale aeolian sediment input to coastal dunes: The nature of aeolian transport events. Geomorphology 126: 217–232.

53.

Delgado-Fernandez

Davidson-Arnott

Hesp

(2019b) Is ‘re-mobilisation’ nature restoration or nature destruction? A commentary. Journal of Coastal Conservation 23(6): 1093–1103.

54.

Delgado-Fernandez

O’Keeffe

Davidson-Arnott

(2019a) Natural and human controls on dune vegetation cover and disturbance. Science of The Total Environment 672: 643–656.

55.

Dong

(2006) The coastal aeolian geomorphic types and their distribution pattern in China. Marine Geology & Quaternary Geology 26: 99–104.

56.

Doody

(2008) Sand Dune Inventory of Europe, 2nd Edition. National Coastal Consultants and EUCC - The Coastal Union, in association with the IGU Coastal Commission. Liverpool: Liverpool Hope University.

57.

Doody

(2012) Coastal Conservation and Management: An Ecological Perspective. Berlin: Springer Netherlands.

58.

El Banna

(2004) Nature and human impact on Nile Delta coastal sand dunes, Egypt. Environmental Geology 45: 690–695.

59.

El Fishawi

El Askary

(1981) Characteristic features of coastal sand dunes along Burullus-Gamasa stretch, Egypt. Acta Mineralogica-Petrographica, Szeged 25: 63–76.

60.

El Mrini

Anthony

Maanan

, et al. (2012) Beach-dune degradation in a Mediterranean context of strong development pressures, and the missing integrated management perspective. Ocean & Coastal Management 69: 299–306.

61.

Feagin

Furman

Salgado

, et al. (2019) The role of beach and sand dune vegetation in mediating wave run up erosion. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 219: 97–106.

62.

Feagin

Sherman

Grant

(2005) Coastal erosion, global sea-level rise, and the loss of sand dune plant habitats. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3: 359–364.

63.

Forman

Sagintayev

Sultan

, et al. (2008) The twentieth-century migration of parabolic dunes and wetland formation at Cape Cod National Sea Shore, Massachusetts, USA: Landscape response to a legacy of environmental disturbance. The Holocene 18: 765–774.

64.

Gadgil

Ede

(1998) Application of scientific principles to sand dune stabilization in New Zealand: Past progress and future needs. Land Degradation & Development 9: 131–142.

65.

Garcia-Lozano

Pintó

(2018) Current status and future restoration of coastal dune systems on the Catalan shoreline (Spain, NW Mediterranean Sea). Journal of Coastal Conservation 22: 519–532.

66.

García-Romero

Delgado-Fernández

Hesp

, et al. (2019) Biogeomorphological processes in an arid transgressive dunefield as indicators of human impact by urbanization. Science of the Total Environment 650: 73–86.

67.

Geissler

Krohn

Rennert

(2011) Herpetofaunal records in coastal dune areas, Binh Thuan Province, Southern Vietnam, with the rediscovery of Oligodon macrurus Angel, 1927. Russian Journal of Herpetology 18: 317–324.

68.

Girardi

Davis

(2010) Parabolic dune reactivation and migration at Napeague, NY, USA: Insights from aerial and GPR imagery. Geomorphology 114: 530–541.

69.

Godfrey

(1974) An ecological approach to dune management in the National Recreation Areas of the United States East Coast. International Journal of Biometeorology 18: 101–110.

70.

Golik

(1997) Dynamics and management of sand along the Israeli coastline. Bulletin de l’Institut Oceanographique (Monaco), CIESM, Science Series 3: 97–110.

71.

Gómez-Pina

Muñoz-Pérez

Ramírez

, et al. (2002) Sand dune management problems and techniques, Spain. Journal of Coastal Research 36: 325–332.

72.

González-Villanueva

Costas

Pérez-Arlucea

, et al. (2013) Impact of atmospheric circulation patterns on coastal dune dynamics, NW Spain. Geomorphology 185: 96–109.

73.

Hacker

Zarnetske

Seabloom

, et al. (2012) Subtle differences in two non-native congeneric beach grasses significantly affect their colonization, spread, and impact. Oikos 121: 138–148.

74.

Harris

Nel

Schoeman

(2011) Mapping beach morphodynamics remotely: A novel application tested on South African sandy shores. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 92: 78–89.

75.

Heathfield

Walker

(2011) Analysis of coastal dune dynamics, shoreline position, and large woody debris at Wickaninnish Bay, Pacific Rim National Park, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 48: 1185–1198.

76.

Héquette

Ruz

Zemmour

, et al. (2019) Alongshore variability in coastal dune erosion and post-storm recovery, northern coast of France. Journal of Coastal Research 88(1): 25–45.

77.

Hernández-Cordero

Hernández-Calvento

Hesp

, et al. (2018) Geomorphological changes in an arid transgressive coastal dune field due to natural processes and human impacts. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 2167–2180.

78.

Hertling

Lubke

(1999) Use of Ammophila arenaria for dune stabilization in South Africa and its current distribution—perceptions and problems. Environmental Management 24: 467–482.

79.

Hesp

(2001) The Manawatu dunefield: Environmental change and human impacts. New Zealand Geographer 57: 33–40.

80.

Hesp

(2013) Conceptual models of the evolution of transgressive dune field systems. Geomorphology 199: 138–149.

81.

Hesp

Thom

(1990) Geomorphology and evolution of active transgressive dunefields. In: Nordstrom

Psuty

Carter

RWG

(Eds), Coastal Dunes: Form and Process. London: Wiley, pp. 253–288.

82.

Hesp

Schmutz

Martinez

, et al. (2010) The effect on coastal vegetation of trampling on a parabolic dune. Aeolian Research 2: 105–111.

83.

Hilton

(2006) The loss of New Zealand’s active dunes and the spread of marram grass (Ammophila arenaria). New Zealand Geographer 62: 105–120.

84.

Hilton

Konlechner

(2010) A review of the marram grass eradication program (1999–2009), Stewart Island, New Zealand. In: Proceedings of the 17th Australasian weeds conference (ed SM Zydenbos), Christchurch, New Zealand, 26–30 September 2010, pp. 386–389. Christchurch: New Zealand Plant Protection.

85.

Hilton

Harvey

Hart

, et al. (2006) The impact of exotic dune grass species on foredune development in Australia and New Zealand: A case study of Ammophila arenaria and Thinopyrum junceiforme. Australian Geographer 37: 313–334.

86.

L-D

Lüthgens

Wong

Y-C

, et al. (2017). Late Holocene cliff-top dune evolution in the Hengchun Peninsula of Taiwan: Implications for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 148: 13–30.

87.

Hoang

TTH

Phan

Hoang

, et al. (2010) Sandy soils in South Central Coastal Vietnam: Their origin, constraints and management. In: Proceedings of the 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World (ed Robert

), Brisbane, Australia, 1-6 August 2010, pp. 251–254. Crawley: International Union of Soil Sciences.

88.

Houser

Wernette

Rentschlar

, et al. (2015) Post-storm beach and dune recovery: Implications for barrier island resilience. Geomorphology 234: 54–63.

89.

Jin

, et al. (2013) Coastal environment evolution record from Anshan coastal aeolian sand of Jinjiang, Fujian Province, based on the OSL dating (in Chinese with English abstract). Acta Geographica Sinica 68: 343–356.

90.

Huang

Zinnert

Wood

, et al. (2018) Non-linear shift from grassland to shrubland in temperate barrier islands. Ecology 99: 1671–1681.

91.

Huang

Yim

(2014) Sand dune restoration experiments at Bei-Men coast, Taiwan. Ecological Engineering 73: 409–420.

92.

Illenberger

Rust

(1988) A sand budget for the Alexandria coastal dunefield, South Africa. Sedimentology 35: 513–521.

93.

Jackson

Cooper

(1999) Beach fetch distance and aeolian sediment transport. Sedimentology 46: 517–522.

94.

Jackson

Cooper

(2011) Coastal dune fields in Ireland: Rapid regional response to climatic change. Journal of Coastal Research 64: 293–297.

95.

Jackson

Costas

González-Villanueva

, et al. (2019) A global ‘greening’ of coastal dunes: An integrated consequence of climate change? Global and Planetary Change 182: 103026.

96.

Jayangondaperumal

Murari

Sivasubramanian

, et al. (2012) Luminescence dating of fluvial and coastal red sediments in the SE coast, India, and implications for paleoenvironmental changes and dune reddening. Quaternary Research 77: 468–481.

97.

Jenks

Brake

(2001) Enhancing dune function and landscape integrity using active and passive bio-engineering, Bay of Plenty Coast, New Zealand. Journal of Coastal Research 34: 528–534.

98.

Jimenez

Maia

Serra

, et al. (1999) Aeolian dune migration along the Ceara coast, north-eastern Brazil. Sedimentology 46: 689–701.

99.

Jungerius

Van der Meulen

(1988) Erosion processes in a dune landscape along the Dutch coast. Catena 15: 217–228.

100.

Kemal Sönmez

Onur

Sari

, et al. (2009) Monitoring changes in land cover/use by CORINE methodology using aerial photographs and IKONOS satellite images: A case study for Kemer, Antalya, Turkey. International Journal of Remote Sensing 30: 1771–1778.

101.

Kilibarda

Shillinglaw

(2015) A 70 year history of coastal dune migration and beach erosion along the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Aeolian Research 17: 263–273.

102.

Kim

(2005) Invasive plants on disturbed Korean sand dunes. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 62: 353–364.

103.

Kim

Ewing

(2006) Ecological restoration of coastal sand dunes in South Korea. Journal of Coastal Research 39: 1259–1262.

104.

Kim

Choi

Jung

(2014) Changes in foredune vegetation caused by coastal forests. Ocean & Coastal Management 102: 103–113.

105.

Konlechner

Hilton

Arens

(2014) Transgressive dune development following deliberate de-vegetation for dune restoration in the Netherlands and New Zealand. Dynamic Environments 33: 141–154.

106.

Konlechner

Ryu

Hilton

, et al. (2015) Evolution of foredune texture following dynamic restoration, Doughboy Bay, Stewart Island, New Zealand. Aeolian Research 19: 203–214.

107.

Kunz

Frechen

Ramesh

, et al. (2010) Luminescence dating of Late Holocene dunes showing remnants of early settlement in Cuddalore and evidence of monsoon activity in south east India. Quaternary International 222: 194–208.

108.

Kutiel

(2001) Conservation and management of the Mediterranean coastal sand dunes in Israel. Journal of Coastal Conservation 7: 183–192.

109.

Kutiel

Cohen

Shoshany

, et al. (2004) Vegetation establishment on the southern Israeli coastal sand dunes between the years 1965 and 1999. Landscape and Urban Planning 67: 141–156.

110.

Łabuz

Grunewald

Bobykina

, et al. (2018) Coastal dunes of the Baltic Sea shores: A review. Quaestiones Geographicae 37: 47–71.

111.

Levin

(2011) Climate-driven changes in tropical cyclone intensity shape dune activity on Earth’s largest sand island. Geomorphology 125: 239–252.

112.

Levin

Ben-Dor

(2004) Monitoring sand dune stabilization along the coastal dunes of Ashdod-Nizanim, Israel, 1945–1999. Journal of Arid Environments 58: 335–355.

113.

Levin

Jablon

P-E

Phinn

, et al. (2017) Coastal dune activity and foredune formation on Moreton Island, Australia, 1944–2015. Aeolian Research 25: 107–121.

114.

Levin

Kidron

Ben-Dor

(2008) A field quantification of the adaptations of coastal dune plants to erosion and deposition of sand. Sedimentology 55: 751–772.

115.

Lin

T-Y

Liou

J-Y

(2013) Lessons learned from two coastal dune reconstruction experiments in Taiwan. Journal of Coastal Research 65: 320–325.

116.

Liu

(2007) A study on sedimentary and moving characteristics of sandy dunes in the eastern coast, Changle, Fujian (in Chinese with English abstract). Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.

117.

Malavasi

Santoro

Cutini

, et al. (2013) What has happened to coastal dunes in the last half century? A multitemporal coastal landscape analysis in Central Italy. Landscape and Urban Planning 119: 54–63.

118.

Marcomini

López

Picca

, et al. (2017) Natural coastal dune-field landforms, plant communities, and human intervention along Buenos Aires Northern Aeolian Barrier. Journal of Coastal Research 33: 1051–1064.

119.

Martínez

Landgrave

Silva

, et al. (2019) Shoreline dynamics and coastal dune stabilization in response to changes in infrastructure and climate. Journal of Coastal Research 92: 6–12.

120.

Martínez

Mendoza-González

Silva-Casarín

, et al. (2014) Land use changes and sea level rise may induce a “coastal squeeze” on the coasts of Veracruz, Mexico. Global Environmental Change 29: 180–188.

121.

Martinho

Hesp

Dillenburg

(2010) Morphological and temporal variations of transgressive dunefields of the northern and mid-littoral Rio Grande do Sul coast, Southern Brazil. Geomorphology 117: 14–32.

122.

Mascarenhas

(2002) Restoration of sand dunes along human-altered coasts: A scheme for Miramar Beach, Goa. Mumbai: IGIDR.

123.

Mascarenhas

(2008) Sand fences: An environment-friendly technique to restore degraded coastal dunes. Journal Geological Society of India 71: 868–870.

124.

Mathew

Davidson-Arnott

Ollerhead

(2010) Evolution of a beach–dune system following a catastrophic storm overwash event: Greenwich Dunes, Prince Edward Island, 1936–2005. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 47: 273–290.

125.

Maximiliano-Córdova

Salgado

Martínez

, et al. (2019) Does the functional richness of plants reduce wave erosion on embryo coastal dunes? Estuaries and Coasts 42: 1730–1741.

126.

Mendes

Giannini

PCF

(2015) Coastal dunefields of south Brazil as a record of climatic changes in the South American Monsoon System. Geomorphology 246: 22–34.

127.

Miccadei

Mascioli

Piacentini

, et al. (2011) Geomorphological features of coastal dunes along the central Adriatic coast (Abruzzo, Italy). Journal of Coastal Research 27: 1122–1136.

128.

Miguel

LLAJ

Castro

JWA

(2018) Aeolian dynamics of transgressive dunefields on the southern Mozambique coast, Africa. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 2533–2546.

129.

Miller

Gornish

Buckley

(2010) Climate and coastal dune vegetation: Disturbance, recovery, and succession. Plant Ecology 206: 97.

130.

Ministry of Environment (MOE) (2001) The Study of the Status, Conservation, and Management of Sand Dunes in Korea: List of Korean Sand Dunes. Seoul: Ministry of Environment Publication.

131.

Mitasova

Overton

Harmon

(2005) Geospatial analysis of a coastal sand dune field evolution: Jockey’s Ridge, North Carolina. Geomorphology 72: 204–221.

132.

Moulton

Hesp

Miot da Silva

, et al. (2019) Changes in vegetation cover on the Younghusband Peninsula transgressive dunefields (Australia) 1949–2017. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 44: 459–470.

133.

Muhs

Roskin

Tsoar

, et al. (2013) Origin of the Sinai–Negev erg, Egypt and Israel: Mineralogical and geochemical evidence for the importance of the Nile and sea level history. Quaternary Science Reviews 69: 28–48.

134.

Mujabar

Chandrasekar

(2012) Dynamics of coastal landform features along the southern Tamil Nadu of India by using remote sensing and Geographic Information System. Geocarto International 27: 347–370.

135.

Muñoz-Reinoso

(2018) Doñana mobile dunes: What is the vegetation pattern telling us? Journal of Coastal Conservation 22: 605–614.

136.

Musil

Midgley

(1990) The relative impact of invasive Australian acacias, fire and season on the soil chemical status of a sand plain lowland fynbos community. South African Journal of Botany 56: 419–427.

137.

Navarro-Pons

Muñoz-Pérez

Román-Sierra

, et al. (2016) Evidence of coastal dune mobility increases over the last half century in response to historical human intervention. Scientia Marina 80: 261–272.

138.

Nehren

Thai

HHD

Marfai

, et al. (2016) Ecosystem services of coastal dune systems for hazard mitigation: Case studies from Vietnam, Indonesia, and Chile. In: Renaud

Sudmeier-Rieux

Estrella

Nehren

(eds) Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation in practice. Cham: Springer International Publishing AG, pp. 99–129.

139.

Nehren

Thai

HHD

Trung

, et al. (2017) Sand dunes and mangroves for disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation in the coastal zone of Quang Nam Province, Vietnam. In: Nauditt

Ribbe

(eds) Land Use and Climate Change Interactions in Central Vietnam: LUCCi. Singapore: Springer Verlag, Singapore, pp. 201–222.

140.

Neve

Ancion

Thai

HHT

, et al. (2009) Fertilization capacity of aquatic plants used as soil amendments in the coastal sandy area of Central Vietnam. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 40: 2658–2672.

141.

Nicholls

Cazenave

(2010) Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science 328(5985): 1517–1520.

142.

Nordstrom

(1994) Beaches and dunes of human-altered coasts. Progress in Physical Geography 18: 497–516.

143.

Noujas

Kankara

Selvan

(2019) Shoreline management plan for embayed beaches: A case study at Vengurla, west coast of India. Ocean & Coastal Management 170: 51–59.

144.

NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation (2001) Coastal Dune Management Manual: a Manual of Coastal Dune Management and Rehabilitation Techniques. Newcastle: Coastal Unit, DLWC.

145.

Ojeda

Vallejo

Malvarez

(2005) Morphometric evolution of the active dunes system of the Doñana National Park, Southern Spain (1977-1999). Journal of Coastal Research 49: 40–45.

146.

Oliver

Woodroffe

(2016) Chronology, morphology and GPR-imaged internal structure of the Callala Beach prograded barrier in southeastern Australia. Journal of Coastal Research 75: 318–322.

147.

Oliver

Kennedy

Tamura

, et al. (2018) Interglacial-glacial climatic signatures preserved in a regressive coastal barrier, southeastern Australia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 501: 124–135.

148.

Ollerhead

Davidson-Arnott

Walker

, et al. (2013) Annual to decadal morphodynamics of the foredune system at Greenwich Dunes, Prince Edward Island, Canada. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 284–298.

149.

Paskoff

(2001) Dune management on the Atlantic coast of France: A case study. In: Houston

Edmondson

Rooney

(eds) Coastal Dune Management: Shared Experience of European Conservation Practice. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 34–40.

150.

Paskoff

Cuitino

Manriquez

(2010) Origin of sand dunes in the Copiapó region, Atacama Desert, Chile. Andean Geology 30: 355–361.

151.

Pelletier

Mitasova

Harmon

, et al. (2009) The effects of interdune vegetation changes on Eolian dune field evolution: A numerical-modeling case study at Jockey’s Ridge, North Carolina, USA. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 34: 1245–1254.

152.

Peyrat

Braun

Dolnik

, et al. (2009) Vegetation dynamics on the Łeba Bar/Poland: A comparison of the vegetation in 1932 and 2006 with special regard to endangered habitats. Journal of Coastal Conservation 13: 235.

153.

Pickart

(2013) Dune restoration over two decades at the Lanphere and Ma-le’l Dunes in northern California. In: Martinez

Gallego-Fernández

Hesp

(eds) Restoration of coastal dunes. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 159–171.

154.

Pickart

Hesp

(2019) Spatio-temporal geomorphological and ecological evolution of a transgressive dunefield system, Northern California, USA. Global and Planetary Change 172: 88–103.

155.

Pinto

Fernandes

(2011) Multitemporal analyses of the vegetation cover of coastal sand dune ecosystems in Natal/RN, based on NDVI index. In: Epiphanio

JCN

Galvão

(eds) XV Brazilian Symposium on Remote Sensing (SBSR). Curitiba, Brasil, 30 April-5 May 2011, pp. 1895–1901.

156.

Pinto

Meireles

Cooper

Klein

AHF

(2015) Santinho/Ingleses transgressive dunefield system --Santa Catarina Island (Brazil): Temporal variability in vegetation, manmade structures and dune migration. In: Wang

Rosati

Cheng

(eds) Proceedings of the Coastal Sediments 2015, San Diego, USA, pp. 1–14. Singapore: World Scientific.

157.

Provoost

Van Landuyt

(2001) The flora of the Flemish coastal dunes. In: Houston

Edmondson

Rooney

(eds) Coastal Dune Management: Shared Experience of European Conservation Practice. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 393–401.

158.

Provoost

Jones

MLM

Edmondson

(2011) Changes in landscape and vegetation of coastal dunes in northwest Europe: A review. Journal of Coastal Conservation 15: 207–226.

159.

Psuty

Silveira

(2010) Global climate change: An opportunity for coastal dunes? Journal of Coastal Conservation 14: 153–160.

160.

Pye

(1983) Coastal dunes. Progress in Physical Geography 7: 531–557.

161.

Pye

Blott

(2008) Decadal-scale variation in dune erosion and accretion rates: An investigation of the significance of changing storm tide frequency and magnitude on the Sefton coast, UK. Geomorphology 102: 652–666.

162.

Pye

Blott

(2017) Evolution of a sediment-starved, over-stabilised dunefield: Kenfig Burrows, South Wales, UK. Journal of Coastal Conservation 21: 685–717.

163.

Pye

Blott

Howe

(2014) Coastal dune stabilization in Wales and requirements for rejuvenation. Journal of Coastal Conservation 18: 27–54.

164.

Zhuang

Han

, et al. (2004) Research on the aeolian dunes in the Qinhuangdao area (in Chinese with English abstract). Journal of Ocean University of Qingdao 34: 617–624.

165.

Quang-Minh

Frechen

Nghi

, et al. (2010) Timing of Holocene sand accumulation along the coast of central and SE Vietnam. International Journal of Earth Sciences 99: 1731–1740.

166.

Han

Dong

Zhang

. (2013) A study of the characteristics of aeolian sand activity and the effects of a comprehensive protective system in a coastal dune area in southern China. Coastal engineering 77: 28–39.

167.

Reckendorf

Leach

Baum

, et al. (1985) Stabilization of sand dunes in Oregon. Agricultural History 59: 260–268.

168.

Reckendorf

Leach

Baum

, et al. (1987) Stabilization of west coast sand dunes. In: Coastal Zone’87: Proceedings of the fifth symposium on coastal and ocean management (ed Magoon OT), Seattle, Washington, May 26-29, 1987, pp. 1328–1342. Reston: American Society of Civil Engineers.

169.

Rhind

Blackstock

Hardy

, et al. (2001) The evolution of Newborough Warren dune system with particular reference to the past four decades. In: Houston

Edmondson

Rooney

(eds) Coastal Dune Management: shared experience of European conservation practice. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 345–379.

170.

Rodríguez-Ramírez

Morales

Delgado

, et al. (2008) The impact of man on the morphodynamics of the Huelva coast (SW Spain). Journal of Iberian Geology 34: 313–327.

171.

Runólfsson

(1987) Land reclamation in Iceland. Arctic and Alpine Research 19: 514–517.

172.

Ruz

M-H

Anthony

Faucon

(2005) Coastal dune evolution on a shoreline subject to strong human pressure: The Dunkirk area, Northern France. Dunes and Estuaries 2005: 441–449.

173.

Schwendiman

(1977) Coastal sand dune stabilization in the Pacific Northwest. International Journal of Biometeorology 21: 281–289.

174.

Seeliger

Cordazzo

Oliveira

, et al. (2000) Long-term changes of coastal foredunes in the southwest Atlantic. Journal of Coastal Research 16: 1068–1072.

175.

Sharma

(1990) Report on review of present status in watershed management and future needs for immediate action in Vietnam. Rome: FAO.

176.

Sharma

(1992) Status and future needs for forest watershed management in Vietnam. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 8: 461–469.

177.

Sherman

Bauer

(1993) Dynamics of beach-dune systems. Progress in Physical Geography 17: 413–447.

178.

Sherman

Nordstrom

(1994) Hazards of wind-blown sand and coastal sand drifts: A review. Journal of Coastal Research 12: 263–275.

179.

Shih

Chang

, et al. (1994) A geomorphological study of sand dunes in southern and eastern coast of Taiwan. Geographical Research 21: 1–42.

180.

Short

(1988) Holocene coastal dune formation in southern Australia: A case study. Sedimentary Geology 55: 121–142.

181.

Sigren

Figlus

Armitage

(2014) Coastal sand dunes and dune vegetation: Restoration, erosion, and storm protection. Shore & Beach 82: 5–12.

182.

Stanley

Warne

(1993) Nile Delta: Recent geological evolution and human impact. Science 260: 628–634.

183.

Sytnik

Stecchi

(2015) Disappearing coastal dunes: tourism development and future challenges: A case-study from Ravenna, Italy. Journal of Coastal Conservation 19: 715–727.

184.

Syvitski

Kettner

(2011) Sediment flux and the Anthropocene. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369: 957–975.

185.

Syvitski

Milliman

(2007) Geology, geography, and humans battle for dominance over the delivery of fluvial sediment to the coastal ocean. The Journal of Geology 115: 1–19.

186.

Syvitski

Vörösmarty

Kettner

, et al. (2005) Impact of humans on the flux of terrestrial sediment to the global coastal ocean. Science 308: 376–380.

187.

Tan Van

Pinners

Truong

(2003) Coastal dune stabilisation in Central Vietnam. In: In: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Vetiver and Exhibition (eds Truong P and Xia H), Guangzhou, China, 6–9 September 2003, pp. 265–273. Beijing: China Agriculture Press.

188.

Thomas

Hofmeyer

Benwell

(2006) Bitou bush control (after fire) in Bundjalung National Park on the New South Wales North Coast. Ecological Management & Restoration 7: 79–92.

189.

Tinley

(1985) Coastal Dunes of South Africa. South African National Scientific Programmes Report 109. Pretoria, South Africa: Foundation for Research Development, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, pp. 1–300.

190.

Tissier

McLoughlin

Sheard

, et al. (2013) Distribution of vegetation along environmental gradients on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Ecoscience 20: 361–372.

191.

Tribe

Kennedy

(2010) The geomorphology and evolution of a large barrier spit: Farewell Spit, New Zealand. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 35: 1751–1762.

192.

Tsoar

(2005) Sand dunes mobility and stability in relation to climate. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 357: 50–56.

193.

Tsoar

Zohar

(1985) Desert dune sand and its potential for modern agricultural development. In: Gradus

(ed) Desert Development: Man and Technology in Sparselands. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 184–200.

194.

Tsoar

Levin

Porat

, et al. (2009) The effect of climate change on the mobility and stability of coastal sand dunes in Ceará State (NE Brazil). Quaternary Research 71: 217–226.

195.

Vallejo Villalta

Márquez Pérez

(2006) Doñana active dune system: An example of fragile equilibrium ecosystem in the Mediterranean environment. Publicationes Instituti Geographici Universitatis Tartuensis 101: 31–38.

196.

Van der Biest

De Nocker

Provoost

, et al. (2017) Dune dynamics safeguard ecosystem services. Ocean & Coastal Management 149: 148–158.

197.

Van der Maarel

Boot

van Dorp

, et al. (1985) Vegetation succession on the dunes near Oostvoorne, the Netherlands: A comparison of the vegetation in 1959 and 1980. Vegetatio 58: 137–187.

198.

Van Dijk

(1992) Grazing domestic livestock in Dutch coastal dunes: Experiments, experiences and perspectives. In: Carter

RWG

Curtis

TGF

Sheehy-Skeffington

(Eds.), Coastal dunes: geomorphology, ecology and management for conservation. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 235–250.

199.

Vörösmarty

Meybeck

Fekete

, et al. (2003) Anthropogenic sediment retention: Major global impact from registered river impoundments. Global and Planetary Change 39: 169–190.

200.

Walker

Eamer

Darke

(2013) Assessing significant geomorphic changes and effectiveness of dynamic restoration in a coastal dune ecosystem. Geomorphology 199: 192–204.

201.

Wendelken

(1974) New Zealand experience in stabilization and afforestation of coastal sands. International Journal of Biometeorology 18: 145–158.

202.

(1987) Sedimentary structure and developing model of coastal dunes along the northeastern coast of Hainan Island, China (in Chinese with English abstract). Acta Geographica Sinica 42: 129–141.

203.

Xie

(2001) Microclimate effect of sandy coast shelter-forest. Journal of Desert Research 21: 93–96.

204.

Xie

Wen

Liang

, et al. (2008) Biomass and productivity of Casuarina equisetifolia shelter belt on coastal sandy land in Guangxi. Protection Forest Science and Technology 5: 6–8. (in Chinese with English abstract)

205.

Yizhaq

Ashkenazy

Tsoar

(2007) Why do active and stabilized dunes coexist under the same climatic conditions? Physical Review Letters 98: 188001.

206.

You

Kim

Lee

, et al. (2018) Coastal landscape planning for improving the value of ecosystem services in coastal areas: Using system dynamics model. Environmental Pollution 242: 2040–2050.

207.

Zhu

Yang

(1987) Features of coastal dunes study and their development in Japan. Study of World Desert 4: 1–6. (in Chinese)

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

1.93 MB