The information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers

Abstract

Reviews research studies on the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in developed and developing countries. The analysis suggests that the information needs of rural communities from all countries are very similar, although rural communities they do vary from region to region and from country to country depending on socio-economic conditions. These needs are mostly related to the daily life of rural dwellers.

Keywords

information needs information-seeking behaviours rural dwellers literature reviews

Introduction

Information is conceived as an important resource that contributes immensely towards the development of a nation. Ideally, information brings about knowledge, and a knowledgeable community is also an informed community. This signifies that a community can not develop without knowledge, and a community can only become knowledgeable if they recognize and use information as their tool for development (Kamba 2009). Access to the right information by rural communities can help them to acquire the skills, knowledge and confidence to participate fully in community affairs. Moore (2007: 6) mentioned that

“Information is a key contributor to the development of individuals and communities. People need information to develop their potential through education and training, to succeed in business, to enrich their cultural experience, and to take control of their daily lives.”

He further stated that access to information is not equal throughout society. People living in affluent urban centres can choose from abundant sources of information. In contrast, people living in poor communities are frequently denied access to information which could improve their lives. This situation is particularly severe in many rural areas of the developing countries.

In many countries, particularly in Africa and Asia, the majority of the people live in rural areas and they have different information needs from urban dwellers. Cheunwattana (1998: 2) mentioned that

“Not much empirical data about rural information needs and gathering habits of the rural community, information support through information services is available, and we know very little about how information has been provided to this disadvantaged segment of the population through existing library and information services, or whether the library and information services offered are relevant and appropriate to the local needs and context. Obviously these fundamental questions still remain unanswered, and empirical research in this area is needed to illuminate our understanding of the current pattern of rural information services, and help devise better approaches to service delivery. The new approaches may help narrow the widening information gap and, consequently, diminish the socio-economic gap between the urban and rural populations in developing countries.”

Sharma and Fatima (2004) noted that access to quality information will obviously help rural dwellers to fight against superstitious beliefs and to aid them in becoming better citizens. A number of studies (see, for example, Zijp 1994; Correa 1995), however, stated that rural dwellers have difficulty in locating and having access to the needed information in a timely fashion. Besides, rural communities do not always know what their information needs are, how can they meet their needs and from where they can get their required information.

Scope and methods

This paper reviews selected research studies on information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in several developed and developing countries with an aim to identify some of the key issues and future research directions in this field. Interested readers should consult other recent reviews in this area (see, for example, Dutta 2009; Zhang and Yu 2009). Although this paper focuses mainly on the studies conducted on overall information needs of rural residents, the need for information by a particular rural group has also been considered. The studies reviewed were primarily identified through Google Scholar and through journals devoted to issues associated with the role of information in development such as Information Development, Libri, Rural Libraries, and International Information and Library Review. The World Bank Group (2011) definition was used as a source for classifying the countries covered in this study. The World Bank defines countries with low-income economies as those with a gross national income (GNI) per capita of under US$1005, lower-middle income economies as those with a GNI per capita of US$1,006 to US$3,975, and upper-middle-income economies as those with a GNI per capita of US$3,976 to US$12,275. The countries that fall under these income groups are considered to be in a state of economic development and thus can be described as ‘‘developing countries.’’ In contrast, “developed countries” are those in the high-income group with a GNI per capita of US$12,276 or more and are Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries. Thus, the literature reviewed under the category of developed countries includes countries such as Australia, France, the UK and the USA. The developing countries reviewed in this study, on the other hand, include Bangladesh, Botswana, China, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand and Zambia.

Rural information needs and seeking behaviour studies in developed countries

There have been some studies on rural information needs and information-seeking behaviours in America. In an early study, Barron and Curran (1979) assessed the general information needs of residents in the rural South and produced guidelines for rural library personnel so that the planning of library services could meet the information needs of the users. They identified 24 need categories and listed them by subject. In another study in Lincolnshire, Illinois, Clark and Unwin (1980) distinguished between realized and latent information needs. This study identified 14 different fields of information needs in rural areas, such as transport, entertainment, education, utility services, health, legal matters, jobs, social security, taxes, rent rates, shopping, town and country planning, housing, and pensions. In a later study, Wilde (1981) cited six major information needs by rural residents of western United States, i.e. community planning, small business management, family health and nutrition, legal information regarding federal laws, information on energy and conservation, and information on agriculture and agricultural practices. In another study in the United States, Chen and Hernon (1982) found that the most commonly mentioned needs were for information on consumer issues, getting and changing jobs, housing and household maintenance, education and schooling.

Mears (1989) stated that rural America has poverty, isolation, inadequate services, and inequality. Due to this, the need for information becomes even greater. She noted that rural Americans need information about parenting, nutrition, water quality, family living, family economics, environment issues, health care, services available, job skills, money management, communication techniques, housing standards, and processes for making changes in government regulations. Examining the information needs of rural Americans, Vavrek (1990, 1993) commented that their needs are very comprehensive and systematic, and discovered that both users and non-users of public libraries indicated in their daily information needs knowledge of current decisions of local government, health and medical services, and local news. Patterson (1995) stated that Native Americans identified their important information needs as those dealing with employment, vocational training, legal and civil rights and health. Bishop et al. (1999) carried out a study in low-income communities in Illinois and identifed the following topics on which information was required: community services and activities such as legal and city services, leisure and local activities, resources for children, healthcare, education, employment, crime and safety, and general reference tools.

In several early studies in the UK, the most common information needs identified related to housing, consumer matters, income maintenance, family and personal matters and employment (see, Richards 1975; Clarke and Unwin 1980; Borrie 1982). Beer, Marcella and Baxter (1998) examined the information needs of the rural population indirectly by means of interviews with 50 key people from various occupations within the community. They identified information needs in Shetland, the northernmost county in the UK, as health and safety, community care, education, employment, housing, consumer issues, legal problems, news and current affairs, local events and activities, etc. Talbot (1998) found that the information needs of residents in a small village in the North of England revolved primarily around their day-to-day living, i.e. benefits, council services and resolving problems that were affecting them such as flooding, industrial emissions, etc. In a nation-wide survey in the UK, Marcella and Baxter (1999) found that rural residents are less likely to use computers and libraries to obtain official information than their urban counterparts. In a more recent report (Thomas et al 2008), it was found that the main barriers to access information in rural areas in Wales are lack of transport and low income.

A study of French rural areas identified the need for information relating to training in agricultural affairs and craft work, local history, topography and culture, useful everyday advice, and local cultural activities (Giraud, as cited in Anwar and Suppat 1998).

There have been some studies on the information needs of rural Australians. Rochester (1998) stated that although Australia is an isolated country, most people live in large cities in the east and southeast coastal fringe. Rochester and Willard (1996/97, as cited in Rochester 1998) also investigated information needs, information gathering strategies and usage of information by 10 urban and 9 rural community groups in New South Wales. The results revealed a wide variety of information needs by these groups, and they used a variety of strategies and sources. Little difference was recorded between urban and rural groups. Rural community groups had the same breadth and intensity of information needs as their urban counterparts.

Patridge (1991) studied the communication behaviour of farmers in a rural area of Western Australia to assess the role of the local public library in meeting their informational, educational, inspirational, and recreational needs. She mentioned that rural people were aware of the need for relevant and timely information and they had begun to demand equity in the quality of services provided to them. Patridge further indicated that farmers received information passively through a variety of sources and channels. Farmers also actively sought information and preferred contact with people, either face-to-face or by telephone. The ‘need to know’ concept was the most dominant factor in their acquisition of knowledge. The local public library was also used by a portion of farming families to satisfy their recreational and some educational needs.

Studies on information needs and seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in developing countries

Cheunwattana (1998) noted that the majority of the rural population in developing countries are poor and illiterate and are economically and socially disadvantaged and their information needs have not been receiving much attention. Still, a number of research studies have been carried out on the information needs of rural communities in these countries. In Africa, the first research attempt was made in 1982 when an experimental library project was set up in a village near Ibadan, Nigeria, for the non-literate community to gain insight into their perceived information needs and those of which they were unaware (Aboyade 1984). This research attempted to establish the information needs of neo-literates and how such needs could be satisfied by a modified formal information service. Aboyade identified the following categories of information needs, i.e. health and sanitation, agricultural production, government policies and programmes, occupation, recreation and leisure, literacy primers, Islamic religious literature, childcare and care of pregnant women, problems of daily existence such as water supply, electricity and roads, employment problems and work opportunities.

In a later study, Aboyade (1987) argued that it is not enough merely to aim at enhancing the quality of life, but efforts should be made to mobilize people in any rural development programme. The study further noted that the provision of information, therefore, should also be aimed at encouraging local people to become actively involved in creating their own well-being. In this regard, information could guide them to open up avenues in occupations, health, housing, education, employment, as well as to institutional resources, facilities and services. Aboyade (1987) provided a useful categorization of information needs of the rural population:

Information for increased productivity and income growth, e.g. when, where, and how to obtain seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, mechanical equipment, and other farm inputs; price quotations, suppliers; credit facilities, clear information about the procedures to follow for application, the amount that can be borrowed, the nearest offices for processing application, information about how to voice a complaint, legal advice; current prices of farm products and the marketing situation.

Information on rural non-farm economic activities, e.g. food processing and baking; textiles, services such as barbing, hair-dressing, shoe-making and repair; woodwork; metalwork; repair services for radio, television, vehicles; masonry, plumbing, painting and fittings; art and crafts; miscellaneous activities such as soap making and herb processing. This also included information about the requirements for engaging in these activities, e.g. capital, equipment, training systems, processes involved, including new and improved techniques, standards and designs, and availability of appropriate technology.

Information for social amenities, e.g. sources of safe drinking water, the prevention of common diseases, nutrition, health, pre- and post-natal care; education facilities, adult literacy programmes, schools and examinations.

Information for social participation and political involvement, e.g. public institutions which have a bearing on their lives, political processes and systems of government, good governance, their political rights and the advocacy of such rights, social organizations like farmer cooperatives and unions.

Temu (1984) carried out a similar study in Papua New Guinea, where he attempted to establish the information needs of the rural dwellers through the ‘eyes’ of central government officials, extension workers, and villagers. The main needs identified were related to small scale economic development and community welfare.

Aina (1985) focused on the agricultural information needs of farmers in south-western Nigeria. In a later study, Aina (1991) identified that the agricultural information needs of scientists and researchers in Africa included control of major pests, books and journals related to agricultural research, credits and co-operatives, proper handling of insecticides and marketing of agricultural products. Similarly, Ojiambo (1989) examined how agricultural scientists and extension workers communicate information with each other and the extent to which libraries act as major source of getting agricultural information in Kenya. Kaniki (1991) attempted to establish the agricultural information needs of farmers in rural areas surrounding Zambia’s urban centres and the needs of workers at agricultural research stations. September (1993) indicated that community information needs in South Africa included basic needs involving health, occupations, problems of daily existence such as water and energy supply, employment opportunities, education, small scale economic development, social welfare, housing, and political and social rights. Kaniki (1995) also conducted an exploratory study of two rural communities in South Africa and assessed their information needs using the ‘critical incident’ approach.

Mchombu (1992, 1995) carried out two most notable studies on information needs for rural development in Malawi, Botswana, and Tanzania. These needs included information on income generation, community leadership, literacy support, basic economics, government policies on rural development, soil conservation, fertility restoration, and soil erosion. In another study, Momodu (2002) studied the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in Nigeria. He identified several information needs, i.e. agricultural information such as where to purchase fertilizer and how to use it; information on pesticides, processing of farm produce; health information as where one could obtain the best treatment and medicine for tuberculosis, cancer, etc.; how to devise a good delivery system for their villages. The women particularly need information about pre- and post-natal care and current immunization facilities for their children and themselves. Political information needs included the need to know what the various types of governments mean and how they operate, what parliamentary and presidential governments are and how they affect their lives, how to vote, the danger of selling their votes, the advantages of opposition parties, etc. School children need information on examinations and syllabuses, scholarships, career prospects and counselling. Parents need information on the best schools to which they could send their children, opportunities for supplementary or evening classes for their children. Other educational needs included information on higher education, for neo-literates and other types of literates who required information on adult education, continuing education, information on training and introduction for new job opportunities.

Mooko (2005) investigated information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural, uneducated women and their families in three villages in Botswana. She found that most information needs are health-related, such as information regarding certain diseases, how they are contracted, and how they are treated. Participants also expressed a need for information relating to job opportunities and training, agriculture, family violence, and basic information needs for the family, as well as financial information such as government-aided funds. Most participants turn to medical practitioners such as village nurses and traditional doctors for their needs, and depend upon their prior experience. Women utilize informal networks, such as information from friends, neighbours, and relatives, for what they believe to be reliable information. Radios were also mentioned as a standard source of information, as were the village chiefs, agricultural demonstrators and community welfare officers.

There were some published works on information needs and seeking patterns of the rural population in Asia. Anwar and Suppat (1998) examined the information needs of rural Malaysians. The needs were broadly categorized as religious information, family bonding, current affairs, health information, education, bringing up children, dietary information, agriculture, where to shop and what to expect, politics and businesses. They further identified the purposes for seeking information. These were fulfilment of the need to know, problem solving, self-development, establishing a better family, work purposes, entertainment, bringing up children, improving crops and products. They also identified the sources of information rural Malaysians used, such as TV and radio, friends and neighbours, printed materials, relative from the city, school (library), and consulting the mosque’s imam and the village head. Bakar (2011) identified that the information needs of rural women in Malaysia are related to food and child education and they use family and/or friends and popular magazines as the main sources of information about these topics.

In her doctoral study, Cheunwattana (1998) analyzed and identified the information needs of five rural Thai communities in such distinct areas as agriculture, occupations, employment, land holdings, citizenship, education, health, local politics, current news and events, and recreation. She further mentioned that from the information provider’s perspective there are many types of information that rural dwellers are not aware of, such as health education, drug prevention, sex education, parenting information, and environmental conservation. The overall use patterns in the five rural communities showed that most users are literate or newly literate groups, and that children are many of the most active users. In another study, Cheunwattana (1999) focused on the extent of rural library services in Thailand in relation to the information policies, information infrastructure, and the needs and use of information. She raised questions about the effectiveness of government-run traditional public library services to rural communities in Thailand.

Butdisuwan (1999) identified the information needs of disadvantaged persons in Thailand. She mentioned that they, like ordinary people, also want to have access to information which responded to their interests and their daily lives, such as information about careers, health and hygiene, inspiration, social welfare, and their current situation. In a more recent study, Ahmed (2009) investigated the information needs of a small ethnic minority community in Thailand. He indicated that most of the respondents felt a need for information on health, education and current issues. Ahmed further identified the sources of information used in the community, indicating that television was the most important source, followed by acquired experience, friends and family, newspapers and radio. Only a few in the community considered the library as one of their chief sources of information.

Seneviaratne, Gunawardene and Siddhisena (2006) surveyed the information needs of rural communities in Sri Lanka. Fifteen main categories of information needs were identified, i.e. agriculture, education, employment/labour, finance, government information, health and nutrition, industrial, infrastructure related information, legal information, local government, market information, political, recreational/religious, self-employment/training information, weather, and information regarding dealing with natural disasters. In another paper, Zhang and Cheng (1996) investigated information provision to the rural communities in China. They reported that the information needs of different community groups varied in terms of types, quantity, timeliness and medium of information, channels of communication and methods of information dissemination. They also noted that technical personnel who were directly engaged in agricultural production require reliable, accurate, practical, technical and detailed information in order to solve technical problems. According to Lu, Wang and Xu (1996), the development of the rural economy in China has resulted in additional knowledge and information needs of rural people. They need scientific and technological information to help develop new agricultural products, promote industry, and manage marketing and trade. Rural Chinese also need information to improve their cultural affairs. In a recent review, Zhang and Yu (2009) discussed the major research studies conducted on rural information needs and acquisition in China. This review concluded that rural dwellers in China have an extensive range of information needs, with agricultural technology, market information, income generation and policy information being the most needed types, and that they rely on interpersonal relationships for acquiring both general information and information for agriculture production.

In India, several research studies have been conducted on the need for information. Most of these studies, however, focused on privileged groups such as technologists, doctors, social scientists and academics. Some studies have also been conducted on rural and community information needs. For example, Musib (1989a) conducted a survey on the information needs and sources of information of rural agriculturists. He tried to identify sources of information on day-to-day problems such as education and school, health and childcare, rent and tax, personal relations, politics, recreation, employment for family members, availability of consumer goods and so on. The main sources of information were personal experience, friends, neighbours, relatives, family members, fellow professionals, agricultural offices, school teachers, shopkeepers for marketing purposes and finding price level, etc. In another study, Musib (1989b) examined the information needs of rural India and he identified that rural dwellers required information on problems regarding consumer, educational, employment, and medical issues. Musib (1991) also focussed on the information needs of individuals engaged in wooden, bamboo and earthenware cottage industries of rural India. In another study, Das and Khan (2004) identified several information needs of rural people. These included agriculture and agricultural related issues, small-scale industries and related issues, employment, education, health and family welfare issues, credit and insurance facilities, food and availability of cheap nutritional diet, self-employment, animal husbandry, public policy information, legal aid and personal security. They mentioned that rural people also need information on social welfare, village and cottage industries, housing, horticulture, local and political news, etc.

Sahu (2004) analyzed the information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in West Bengal, India. She investigated the principal areas of information requirements and the sources of information used. The study found that rural peoples need information pertaining to the specific needs of their occupation and general information for their day-to-day survival, like various government programmes for rural development, healthcare, sanitation, housing, transport facilities, employment opportunities, self-employment schemes, legal aid, banking rules and regulations, land reform, tax laws, civil and political rights, etc. Basu and Dasgupta (2004) conducted a study on users and non-users of information in rural areas in India. In this study, they identified the information needs of the rural communities. The needs identified included income generation, community leadership, environmental issues like pollution, climatic change, disasters, etc., community health, literacy support, educational opportunities, employment, bank loans, government policies, transportation, communication and sanitation.

In her study on rural libraries in India, Dasgupta (2000) identified that the main information needs of the rural environment are on survival, i.e. people living below the poverty line, food, nutrition and health care, law and order, economic activities, education, culture, recreation. She also suggested that in the changing environment of society in India, the information needs of the rural population differ mainly due to reasons such as level of education, economic activities, social status, which includes caste levels, family status, inclusive of women’s status, and rural policy. Sarada (1986) examined the rural library services in India. She identified that the information needs of a community have two parts. First, the common needs of the community which centred around the daily life problems of people, namely, housing, employment, health and hygiene, food and nutrition, child care and family welfare, credit and market facilities, etc. Secondly, the special information needs of groups of people like farmers, women, etc., related to their occupational interests and the welfare legislation and programmes of the government.

Chakrabarti (2001) investigated the information-seeking behaviour of the Totos, a tribal community in Totopara in Sub-Himalayan West Bengal, India. The study also identified the different information needs of this tribal community. About 73 percent of the Totos population expressed a need for information on non-traditional housing, some 5 percent sought information for their personal knowledge, 42 percent required information on pure drinking water and 40 percent, information on pure bathing water. Only 7 percent of the population required information on sanitary measures. It was revealed from the study that about 10 percent of the male population and 12 percent of the female population required information on cooking recipes. Of those surveyed, 35 percent were interested in information about modern agricultural systems, 19 percent required information on cattle keeping, poultry and dairy activities, and 45 percent required information on various categories of government and non-government grants on offer. Only 18 percent of men and 2 percent of women expressed an information need about educational institutions in their village. It was also found that 20 percent of the population required information about political parties, while 14 percent needed information about the village administration election at Totopara, and 5 percent required information about the political situation in West Bengal and the rest of India. Chakrabarti found that Totos mainly obtained information from non-traditional sources; they depended mainly on the headman of the community, the priest or religious leader, mythological stories provided by community elders, ritual places, common gossiping areas, festival places and market places. They also used more traditional sources, such as village administrations, health centres, administrative offices, banks, post offices, non-government organizations, missionary establishments, markets, schools, library, media such as radio, TV and newspapers, literate and non-literate members of their own community, and people from other communities for information.

Vijayakumar et al. (2004) identified the information needs of rural library users in India. They found that the majority of users required information on current affairs (68 percent), followed by politics (60 percent), social life (55 percent), employment (51 percent), agriculture (46 percent), self-employment (38 percent), education (37 percent), forest and industry (26 percent), medical education (24 percent), loan facilities (18 percent), and transport (16 percent). Devi and Meitei (2007) identified information needs of rural people from the villages of Valley district of Manipur state in India. The study found that 78 percent of respondents require information on agriculture, including seeds, pesticides, irrigation and weather conditions, etc., 74 percent needed information on education and training and related areas, and 72 percent needed information on health, sanitation, HIV/AIDS, etc. Moreover, 62 percent of respondents required information on business and 63 percent needed information on technology. A few respondents indicated that they required information about environmental protection, food and nutrition, government policies and plans, games and sports including cultural activities, and rural infrastructure development.

There have been several studies of the information needs of the rural dwellers in Bangladesh. Ahmed, Munshi and Ahmed (1997) analyzed the information needs of the rural community and noted that most rural dwellers who work in the agricultural sector are small, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. These farmers and labourers need information regarding matters that contribute to increasing agricultural productivity and other related outputs. This would include grants, subsidies, provision of credit, supply of fertilizers and agricultural implements. Ahmed et al. further noted that rural information needs are largely centred around problems of daily life and the earning of livelihoods. In another study, Khan (1997) stated that rural communities need information to improve their socio-economic conditions, including better health, water supply and sanitation, finding out about a particular service or government policy, information on producing better crops, prevention and control of environmental pollution, textbooks and teaching aids, sports facilities, and prevention and control of social problems.

Iqbal (2003) carried out a study on the information needs and information problems in rural areas and urban settlements in Bangladesh. He collected data by interviewing 60 respondents (30 male and 30 female) in four remote villages and two poor urban slums. Iqbal mentioned that both rural and urban slum residents considered farming, family planning information, financial or loan assistance, flood control or natural disaster management, health related issues, knowledge about the world, and entertainment as their major areas of information need. Most of them felt a need for information on flood control/natural disaster management, health related issues and knowledge about the world. Surprisingly, 42 percent of informants did not consider agriculture to be a major area of information need. Two-thirds of the respondents chose financial or loan assistance as one of their major areas of information need. There were slight differences between the information needs of rural and urban slum dwellers. These tended to focus on family planning information, flood control and natural disaster management, health related information, general knowledge, and financial or loan assistance. In the case of rural dwellers, the need for entertainment was 20 percent higher than for their urban counterparts. In rural areas 10 percent of informants also expressed an interest in educational information. The need for agricultural information in the urban slum areas was comparatively low, which is quite reasonable. Rural dwellers considered education as one of their areas of unmet need.

Islam (2010), in his doctoral study, identified the information needs of rural dwellers in Bangladesh. This research was conducted in ten rural communities in the northern part of Bangladesh. He indicated that rural library users required information about education (73 percent), health (57 percent), religion (56 percent), entertainment (47 percent), current affairs (43 percent), agriculture (32 percent), politics (28 percent) and family planning (21 percent). It is interesting that 68 percent of participants did not consider agriculture as an area of information need, although the research was conducted in predominantly rural farming areas. The need for information on business, bringing-up children, financial and loan assistance was also comparatively low. Based on these findings, Islam concluded that the information needs of rural communities may vary from region to region depending on the socio-economic conditions of their residents.

Discussion and future research directions

This literature review confirms with the earlier studies that rural information needs are mainly focused on the day-to-day life of the rural dwellers. While many of the studies reviewed in this paper are library-based (see Aboyade 1987; Sarada 1986; Patridge 1991; Vijayakumar et al. 2004), others focused on a particular rural group, e.g. farmers (Aina 1985; Kaniki 1991) or women (Nwagha 1992; Mooko 2005: Bakar 2011). A few studies have also been concentrated on the needs of the entire rural community (Temu 1984; Mchombu 1993; Ahmed 2009). Moreover, there is a large body of literature described the general information needs of rural residents in developing countries (Aina 1991; Mchombu 1995; Lu, Wang and Xu 1996). All these studies, however, conclusively stated that rural dwellers do have needs and that they need information for their day-to-day living, such as health, occupation and income generation, self-governance, agriculture, education, religion, recreation and current affairs. At the same time, some information needs have distinct location-specific content, as is evident from studies in both developed and developing countries. It seems that rural residents in developed countries, in addition to everyday information, also tend to require information on legal and civil rights, consumer issues, environment, etc. This is perhaps because of the fact that these rural dwellers, regardless of their level of employment or economic status, share many of the complex challenges of everyday life experienced by their urban counterparts.

The findings reported in this literature review indicate the need for further research into several areas of rural information needs and information-seeking behaviour in both developed and developing countries. Although the studies reviewed in this paper identified the information needs of rural dwellers, overall, they paid less attention to how rural dwellers use various sources, services and systems to satisfy their information needs. There is also a general lack of attention given to how various services could be organized to provide better information to these users. Besides, the studies conducted in developed countries are few in number, are dated and are less comprehensive than those conducted in developing countries. More research is therefore needed to understand the information needs of rural dwellers in developed countries. Moreover, few studies have reported the information needs and seeking behaviour of ethnic minority groups (see Patterson 1995; Chakrabarti 2001; Ahmed 2009); there is a need for more research on how they approach and use information. Additionally, more studies are needed on the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of illiterate rural dwellers, particularly in the developing countries. Children and young adult comprise a large portion of the rural population in developing countries, and it is important to understand the information needs and information-seeking habits of this group. Furthermore, as mobile phones and wireless Internet become widely available in rural areas, more research needs to be carried out to explore their effectiveness and to assess how these newer information resources are improving the lives of rural residents.

In rural areas, the local public library could be an important source for information. Studies have indicated time and time again that government-run public library services are largely inadequate and ineffective in rural areas as their collection and services do not always meet the needs of the local residents. Alternative channels for providing information services to rural areas thus need to be considered. The local information needs must be understood to be able to develop libraries that will meet those needs. The libraries must also provide useful information to illiterate members of the community through non-traditional channels such as picture books and audio-video recordings. Indigenous low-cost innovative technologies for providing Internet access to rural areas must be seriously considered. The public libraries in rural areas must be better equipped and the librarians must work with the local population to better understand their needs. The librarians should also actively help the rural communities in adopting new technologies. It is true that well-trained librarians are not attracted to jobs in rural areas where resources are scarce and basic human comforts are usually lacking. To overcome this problem, local volunteers can be recruited and trained to work in rural library projects.

In many rural communities, oral tradition and traditional knowledge is an important part of their cultural identities. They still play a vital role in the daily lives of the vast majority of people in the developing world. There is a need to preserve and promote the future use of traditional knowledge and rural libraries can play a significant role in this regard.

Studies have indicated that non-government organizations (NGOs) can also play a crucial role in delivering information to rural dwellers. In many developing countries, they are the main providers of information in rural areas (see Islam 2009). It is important to streamline and integrate their services to cope with the needs of the rural dwellers. Also, the activities and needs of local authorities, extension workers and government information networks must be examined regularly, since these are the primary tools used by governments in many developing countries in getting information out to rural residents.

Conclusion

This literature review analyzed research studies on the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of rural dwellers in both developed and developing countries. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this review is that the information needs of rural dwellers from all countries are largely on the same parameter. The common information needs are related to the daily life of the rural dwellers. A nationwide coordinated effort by government agencies, local authorities and NGOs is therefore needed to bring day-to-day information to the rural dwellers in a way that is more cost-productive and efficient. It is also important that attempts be made to develop and strengthen rural information provision, not only from the top down, but also from the community level (see Ahmed 2010). These efforts must be made by working with the administrative structures of a country. A cultural and social change must take place in the perception of how crucial it is to meet the information needs of rural dwellers and in how to go about meeting those needs in a comprehensive and integrated way.

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