Expanding information behaviour boundaries: A study with religious leaders

Abstract

Information behaviour is a very productive research area in information science, although some study contexts are still little explored, such as religious and spiritual practices, particularly related to minority religions. Thus, this study investigated the information behaviour of religious leaders of Santo Daime, a religion originating in the Brazilian Amazon. Exploratory research with a qualitative approach and semi-structured interviews with four leaders of the doctrine were carried out. The most used sources of information were documents about the Daime religion, personal experience, contact with other leaders and the institution. Information was sought to guide the participants in their rituals, solve administrative problems, improve their knowledge and strengthen their faith. Used in a critical, reflective and creative way, it seeks coherence with the Daimist principles. The findings may contribute to the understanding of the information behaviour of this little-studied social group and the appreciation of cultural and religious diversity in society.

Keywords

Information behaviour religious context Santo Daime information practices spiritual practices ayahuasca

Introduction

Research in information science has, among its objectives, to research the information behaviour of those who seek and use information to solve problems in the most diverse situations and contexts. Users’ information needs are at the origin of studies related to information behaviour (Valero Rivero et al., 2014).

With the evolution of the Internet and the greater participation of the population in this global network, a new social phenomenon has been observed, which has been perceived as an ‘information explosion’ (De Lacerda and Da Silva Llarena, 2019). The excess of information in various contexts does not always have applicability or contribute to a subject. For De Lacerda and Da Silva Llarena, in this sense, it is up to users themselves to identify what their real information needs are and how they can be met. It is this gap that will give rise to an information need, which, in turn, causes an information behaviour. Thus,

[g]iven the cognitive dissonance generated by the information explosion, the individual must have access not only to the identification of his/her information needs but also to how to satisfy them autonomously. To this end, the individual’s construction of knowledge, skills and attitudes in the information domain can help him/her to use the right and necessary resources to deal effectively with his/her needs, thus solving his/her information problems. This construction is characterized as information competence. (De Lacerda and Da Silva Llarena, 2019: 249)

According to Wilson (1994), people seek information to meet different types of needs: physiological, affective and cognitive. Wilson conceptualizes information needs as the perception of the difference between what a person knows and what they would like to know, which can be resolved by utilizing information.

Borlund and Pharo (2019) point to information need as the feeling of a difference between a person’s present state of knowledge and a desirable state of knowledge, which can be filled by information. They state that information needs are related to three distinct domains – work, study and personal interest – and serve different purposes. Thus, they conclude that the nuances and complexities of information needs are best understood in light of domain and purpose, as they provide insight into the context and motivation of the search.

However, whatever the context, information is a strategic resource for the development of the interrelationship between subjects, whether people or organizations, if we consider the perspective pointed out by De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018: 10) that ‘information is the basis of the dynamics of productive and organizational processes’. According to De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa, the search for information is how an individual tries to obtain information to achieve an established purpose and change their level of knowledge. Furthermore, the need, search for and use of information is defined by the demands of work and the social environment, and by the individual’s knowledge gap and emotional experience. Thus, De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa consider information as an indispensable tool for organizations, as it assumes a prominent position due to its transformative action, influencing organizational performance and acting as an auxiliary for managers in their decision-making and elaboration of strategic, tactical and operational measures. It can be conceded that, also for religious organizations, the search for and use of information is essential in their dynamics.

Human behaviour is influenced by several social factors, including religion, which is recognized for its importance to most individuals. And although religious organizations have significant differences compared to other types of organizations, religious systems also need to be based on foundations that allow their operation, especially since the organizational structure of churches is essential for the exercising of their activities. Thus, one of the challenges for religious organizations is to manage information efficiently and effectively – considering the different means and forms available and the perception of information as a strategic resource for the development of religions – by enabling communication among the faithful, the dissemination of principles and values, guidance for worship activities and the resolution of daily problems (De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa, 2018).

De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018) agree with Passos (2006), who defines a religious organization as a system composed of a particular social group that shares common beliefs, values and meanings, and whose purpose is to maintain tradition, propagate the sacred word, and offer its religious structure, rites, symbols and hierarchy, among other things, to those who do not know anything about it. In this way, religious organizations constitute religious systems in an institutionalized way. Religious organizations should seek ways to obtain, organize, store, disseminate and use information according to their needs and objectives, respecting the diversity and plurality of their members. This situation can be witnessed in the Santo Daime doctrine, a Christian and ecumenical religious practice that uses, in its rituals, the ingestion of Santo Daime in the religious context, also known as ayahuasca, an entheogenic sacrament that induces a spiritual feeling of self-knowledge, constituting a prophylactic and therapeutic agent at the service of the elevation of human consciousness (Araújo and Vieiralves-Castro, 2009).¹

Although information behaviour is an area of information science, research in this field in religious contexts, especially with regard to members in developing countries (Dutta, 2009; Saleh and Bakar, 2013) and particularly minority religious beliefs, as is the case of Santo Daime, is still scarce. This research gap is significant and deserves attention since information behaviours play a crucial role in the religious and spiritual lives of countless people. In general, these studies have addressed topics that lead to an understanding of how individuals obtain, share and use information within these contexts, seeking to expand knowledge in this area.

From this perspective, the central focus of this study was defined. The objective of the analysis was to describe and understand the information behaviour of the leaders of the Santo Daime religion, who are responsible for guiding the followers and managing the administrative and ritual issues of the religion. In this sense, we investigated how these leaders seek and use information to support the development of their functions and the performance of religious ceremonies.

In this article, based on the impressions of leaders, we seek to reflect on how they act in relation to what type of information they seek; where, how and for what they seek information; and how they use, share and mediate this information. To this end, qualitative research was carried out based on the information behaviour approach, which involved semi-structured interviews with four leaders from different Daimist centres.

This research is justified by the need to expand studies in information science related to information behaviour, seeking to understand information phenomena in the specific field of religious practices within the Santo Daime religion. It is also justified by the importance of the construction of meaning aimed at understanding the information gaps in religious contexts, considering that information behaviour addresses the actions of subjects, in a social perspective of information present in user behaviour studies.

Literature review

Information behaviour

Information behaviour is the study of human behaviour regarding information channels and includes active and passive searches for and use of information. It also includes personal and face-to-face communication, forms of reception and modes of transmission, even without any specific intention in relation to the information provided (Wilson, 1999). In this sense, Berti and Ávila Araújo (2017) identify the concept of information behaviour as related to the perception of the subject’s need for information to solve their information problems. Thus, the study of information behaviour comprises three basic components: the need for, the search for and the use of information (Wilson, 1999).

For Koh et al. (2015: 1), although people engage in a range of information behaviours, most previous models and empirical research on these behaviours has tended to focus on information seeking and use. They discuss ‘the need to expand the territories of information behavior research beyond search and use’. In exploring different forms of information behaviour, they introduce new models, including serendipitous (accidental or intuitive) discovery and organizational and information creation behaviour. They also discuss theoretical and methodological issues related to modelling new modes of information behaviour, instigating researchers to identify subfields in the investigation of this topic, and consider the impacts of studying various forms of information behaviour on individuals, society, organizations, technology systems and culture.

Gasque (2022) traces an evolutionary timeline of studies on ‘human information behaviour’ from when the term was first employed in the 1990s by Wilson when referring to the evolution of user studies. From the 1980s, there was a shift towards the individual as the focus of studies, rather than a system-centred approach. This shift was accompanied by new methodological perspectives and a diversity of research groups and authors. Between the 1940s and 1980s, these studies were called ‘user studies’ or ‘needs studies’ and had a behaviourist approach. Then, between 1980 and 1990, cognitivist studies emerged, which motivated researchers to use the term ‘human information behaviour’. Cognitivism also included a more sociocultural view. Since 2000, research has emerged with more integrated approaches, an emphasis on the various aspects of the human being, and the use of methods and efforts focused on understanding the individual more globally (Gasque, 2022: 10–11). Gasque warns that, in recent years, researchers have used the terms ‘human information behaviour’ and ‘information practices’ interchangeably, although these concepts have not referred to the same phenomenon. She also considers that despite the emergence of a more integrative and multifaceted perspective at the beginning of the 21st century, there is a need to develop more integrative models of information behaviour.

Argawal (2018) proposes to explore the understanding of information behaviour, arguing that it cannot be understood in isolation but must be understood within the context in which it occurs, and identifies four key elements that affect it: the user, the situation, the environment and shared identities. The user refers to the individual seeking information and their characteristics, such as their personality, interests and previous experiences. The situation refers to the purpose of the information search, the tasks involved, and the constraints of time and resources. The environment includes the physical and social aspects of the place where the information search occurs, such as the availability of technology and the presence of other people. Finally, shared identities refer to the social connections between the seeker and other people or groups, such as friends, family, coworkers or members of a community. Argawal further argues that it is essential to consider these contextual elements in order to understand how people seek and use information in their everyday lives, suggesting that researchers should pay attention to these aspects in their studies to gain a more comprehensive understanding of information behaviour.

However, it should be noted that organizations are responsible for developing their own culture of information seeking and use, and from this establish their values and norms. Thus, according to Choo (2006), understanding information behaviour in organizations necessarily requires also understanding how they are simultaneously systems of information seeking and belief creation, in which information is shaped by epistemic practices and beliefs are the result of information seeking and use. Also according to Choo, information is conditioned by its situational dimensions, being constructed dynamically and harmonically from the interaction between the environment and the subject, especially considering that seeking information is part of the process whereby a person tries not only to obtain information, but also to achieve an established objective and change their level of knowledge.

Information behaviour in the religious context

Research on information behaviour in the religious context has attracted the attention of information professionals over the years, resulting in studies to understand why people seek information, how they seek it, and the problems they encounter. Some of these studies have investigated how religious leaders seek information to perform their professional roles, what information resources are used, what role the Internet plays in their information behaviour, and how this varies between different religions (Dankasa, 2015).

According to Choo (2006), information behaviour is oriented towards the user, who has specific needs and, to meet these needs, seeks information and acquires it using different sources, whether formal or informal. Thus, when defining the most relevant information, its use will be subject to the user’s professional, organizational and social context. Choo indicates that there has also been interest in search behaviour and the motivation around need, highlighting that the quality of an information source and access to it are predominant factors in selecting the most appropriate information for the objectives to be achieved, both by an individual and by an organization.

More specifically, religious information behaviour is the set of actions and attitudes that people adopt to seek, use and share information related to their faith and beliefs. This behaviour can vary according to the context, motivation and need of each individual or group to make decisions in their daily lives and to interact with others (Brusse et al., 2022). The study of religious information behaviour can contribute to a better understanding of the practices and values of different religious groups in society.

Religion can be understood as ‘a social phenomenon related to other constitutive elements of society and, because of this, presents dimensions such as discourse and cultural practice to be thought of from a historical and political point of view’ (Martino, 2016: 144). It is an important aspect in many spaces and moments of everyday life; in the discussion and making of political decisions, having an influence on international relations; in everyday practices; and in proposing ‘codes of social conduct in the public space and regulating the uses of the body and affective relationships in the private sphere’ (Martino, 2016: 145). According to Weiss (2012), religion, in addition to ordering the world and giving meaning to life, has in its centrality to lead the human being to act, strengthening and bringing to it an energy of life. In contemporary times, the discussion is around how this energy is channelled, since religion is a social phenomenon that exists because people, in a society, relate to each other and are therefore influenced to act by something greater than themselves but also within themselves.

Most of the research carried out in the field of information behaviour in religious contexts conceptualizes its participants as professionals who engage with information resources to fulfil their functions as preachers, administrators and counsellors (e.g. Allen, 1987; Dankasa, 2015, 2016; De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa, 2018; Lambert, 2010; Michels, 2014; Phillips, 1992; Porcella, 1973; Roland, 2012; Saleh and Bakar, 2013; Wicks, 1999). According to Passos (2006), religious leaders are largely responsible for building faith communities since they animate and encourage the members of these communities, and are therefore, based on their actions and motivations, the examples that sustain community life. For Passos, leaders are responsible for the organization and distribution of tasks, as well as for providing advice to the faithful and/or their followers.

Corroborating Passos (2006), De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018) state that it is the support of the religious leader that helps in the edification of religion in its spiritual and social aspects and, thus, in addition to having the primary function of preserving and transmitting religious principles, the leader is responsible for transmitting the sacred word that must be preserved and disseminated, without betraying it in its originalities.

De Cássia Machado (2019) states that churches have strength and credibility, in addition to being rooted in communities. Furthermore,

[a]s respected and trusted members of society, religious leaders are listened to and their actions set a role model for many people. Moreover, religious leaders are in a privileged position, which allows them to make a difference when it comes to the information disseminated to their followers. (De Cássia Machado, 2019: 24)

From this same perspective, according to Dankasa (2015), spiritual religious practices, which follow a traditional hierarchy, depend on religious leadership to maintain group unity. For Dankasa, religious leadership is responsible for guiding the beliefs and actions of the faithful. Leaders have different attitudes towards information sources depending on their doctrinal orientation and their role in the church.

Older research on the information behaviour of religious leaders reports several difficulties faced by leaders in seeking and accessing information (see Allen, 1987; Porcella, 1973). These difficulties can be due to a lack of resources or the technology available at the time. Historically, studies in this area indicate an evolution of the theme, especially in the use of information and communications technologies by religious organizations.

The studies by Wicks (1999) and Roland (2012), in which the information-seeking behaviour of pastoral clergy was evaluated concerning various types of information sources in the performance of different functions within the religious context, find that there is often a relationship between the environment and pastoral functions, and it can influence information-seeking behaviour. These studies report the influence of the theological and denominational environments of clergy members on their preaching – that is, the congregational context significantly affects the information behaviour of pastoral clergy.

Lambert (2010) studied the information behaviour of Baptist church leaders in relation to information seeking. According to the results, the leaders varied their information-seeking processes based on the roles they played – mainly administrator and preacher – which corroborates the works of Wicks (1999) and Roland (2012) regarding the influence of the environment and functions on information behaviour. A similar result was obtained by Dankasa (2015), who analysed the literature on the information behaviour of leaders in different professional and religious contexts, and identified the factors that influenced the choice of information sources, such as doctrinal position and job function.

Michels (2014) investigated how the leaders of three churches in Nova Scotia, Canada, experienced information seeking and observed aspects such as the use of new technologies, prayer as a source of information, and the theology of information seeking. According to Michels, church leaders combine different types of information – such as empirical data, personal experiences, biblical guidance and divine revelations – to make decisions that meet the demands of their specific situation. Moreover, Saleh and Bakar (2013) analysed the information needs and behaviour of Muslim preachers in Nigeria. They indicate that the ulama seek information to fulfil their religious and social roles, and make use of various sources and channels of information – both traditional and modern – to meet their needs.

De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018) conducted research on how the process of searching for and using information by religious leaders in Belo Horizonte featured in the decision-making processes in their daily lives, seeking to identify their information needs. The study found that the information needs of religious leaders are mainly based on religious issues, to help in exercising their priesthood. According to De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa, the concern of these leaders is with the meaning of information, the conditions, standards and rules of use, to spiritually guide to bring diverse information, providing the faithful with knowledge and learning.

Although information behaviour is a diverse field of research with a significant number of theories, methods and populations, Chabot (2019) notes that research on the information behaviour of spiritual leaders has been largely dominated by studies related to the Christian clergy – a perception that is corroborated by the survey carried out for this literature review, where the studies were mostly carried out with the Christian clergy and there is an absence of more robust and comprehensive research on information behaviour related to other religious doctrines, especially those with a small number of adherents. Thus, it is observed that few studies on the information behaviour of leaders belonging to minority religions have been conducted. Considering the absence of studies that seek information on other religious organizations, the relevance of this study is reaffirmed. It seeks to understand the information behaviour, with regard to the search for and use of information, of members who perform the function of leadership in the Santo Daime religion, thus contributing to the expansion of knowledge in the area of information behaviour in the religious context.

Study context: the Santo Daime doctrine

The Santo Daime religion, which originated in the interior of the Amazon rainforest in the first decades of the 20th century, has expanded beyond the borders of Brazil, broadening eclecticism and dialogue with other traditions and incorporating influences from other religions. From the 1980s onwards, there was a significant flow of Brazilian and foreign visitors – ‘spiritual seekers’ attracted by the Amazon and indigenous shamanism, and Peruvian ayahuasca practitioners, many of whom later strengthened their ties with the religion either by settling in the community or taking Santo Daime knowledge elsewhere (Santo Daime, 2022).

According to Araújo and Vieiralves-Castro (2009), Santo Daime is a new Christian religious movement that places great value on altered states of consciousness, which Daimists usually call mirações – a way of seeking spiritual enlightenment through the ingestion of a tea known as Daime or ayahuasca, among other denominations, and the repetitive singing of hymns, which are dictated directly from the ‘Astral World’ and contain teachings, healing power and revelations. As revealed by the founder of the doctrine, Irineu Serra, Mestre Irineu, tea has great power and can, in some cases, cause profound changes in people about themselves and the world, bringing new perspectives and psychosocial conceptions. Thus,

Santo Daime is a religion that is not only based on discourse but largely on experience, which occurs through ritual ingestion combined with hymns. Daime hymns also present fragments of collective memory and social representations of the doctrine and can be considered quite complex psychosocial phenomena. (Araújo and Vieiralves-Castro, 2009: 527)

Also characterizing the Santo Daime doctrine is the fact that it is a social practice that aims to elevate perceptual, creative, cognitive and discernment capacity, which helps its practitioners to assume social, individual and collective responsibilities (Vieiralves-Castro, 2009).

With the growth and organization of the Santo Daime religion, new groups began to form outside the Amazon rainforest. According to Gouveia and Martino (2008), the process of the expansion of Santo Daime to large urban centres is directly related to changes in the processes of sociability, including the mediation of cyberspace. This change is paradigmatic, considering that the Internet is one of the main instruments for the dissemination of Santo Daime today on a large scale. With the advent of social networks, the interaction between members of the doctrine has become greater, as the virtual approach has allowed network users to create communities to share experiences, strengthen ties and establish personal relationships, uniting followers in their common interests. In these spaces of digital interaction, the ‘religious internet user can flaunt his religious belonging, seek out his peers, express his opinions and display his knowledge’ (Silva, 2014: 2).

In their study on the Candomblé religion, Corteze and Juvêncio (2022) point out that the transposition of spaces and places of religious learning can be analysed in an emblematic way when a traditional religion is associated with orality and face-to-face practices. They emphasize that, after the approximation of religion with urban areas, ethnographies were present and the structuring of religion changed completely since the religious educational processes in these environments began to be transmitted through writing and, with the passage of time and technological advances, cybernetics was also introduced.

In addition to the dissemination of the doctrine, cyberspace was essential in the mediation of ceremonies during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially between 2020 and 2022, because of the suspension of face-to-face work, which was carried out by digital means, enabling the participation of members from different parts of the world (Hartogsohn, 2022). According to Gouveia and Martino (2008) and Hartogsohn (2022), the Internet was essential in the mediation of the Santo Daime religion both in the process of its expansion and during the pandemic, but could not replace face-to-face ceremonies.

Methodology

This study is a work in progress and part of a PhD thesis to be defended at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. The research developed for the elaboration of this article was conceived as an introduction to the context of Santo Daime from the perspective of an information behaviour analysis. Thus, this work served to assess the possibility of developing a more comprehensive study, as well as the methodological approach and conceptual reflection that would be required to support, in a more robust way, the doctoral project. The empirical data from the interviews will therefore not be used in the final PhD and stands on its own.

To achieve the proposed objectives, exploratory research with a qualitative approach was developed based on the collection of information through semi-structured interviews. According to Luo and Wildemuth (2017: 259), ‘semi-structured interviews are a data collection technique that allows the interviewer to follow a general script of questions while allowing the interviewee to provide additional information or clarify answers’. They are also a qualitative data collection technique that can be used in exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies, and are considered one of the most flexible and adaptable techniques for qualitative data collection. According to Guazi (2021), the credibility and validity of research depends on the quality of the data collection. Thus, semi-structured interviews are a technique that can be used to collect reliable and valid qualitative data. It is important that the interviewer is trained and experienced in the semi-structured interview technique and, above all, establishes a relationship of trust with the interviewee. Moreover, the interview questions should be clear and objective.

The sample comprised four Santo Daime leaders – two male and two female – known within the doctrine as Padrinhos (‘Godfathers’) and Madrinhas (‘Godmothers’). The interviewees were identified by pseudonyms to maintain their confidentiality. The interviews were conducted individually with each religious leader in May and June 2022. The questions were open-ended, allowing the interviewees to share their experiences, perceptions and practices related to obtaining, using and disseminating information in their role as religious leaders (see Appendix 1). As an orientation for collecting the information, a brief introduction was made to the participants, in which the purpose of the research was explained. Their verbal consent was requested for the recording of the interviews. Two of the interviews were conducted in person and two were conducted electronically via WhatsApp. The interviews were then transcribed and translated when the interviewee was not a Portuguese speaker. One of the authors transcribed the four interviews and translated three of them into English. One of the finish interviewed used the Portuguese language. The other author reviewed the transcriptions and translations for quality control. The interviews were then subjected to content analysis to identify aspects related to the information search and use process, as presented in the ‘Results’ section below.

For this study, qualitative content analysis was employed as the data analysis method. Qualitative content analysis consists of identifying, categorizing and analysing the patterns and themes that emerge from the data, using techniques such as coding, comparison and synthesis. Thus, qualitative content analysis helps the researcher to answer their research question and better understand the phenomenon under study (Schreier, 2012). The objective of the analysis was to describe and understand the information behaviour of the leaders of the Santo Daime religion, who are responsible for guiding their followers and managing the administrative and ritual issues of the religion. To this end, we investigated how these leaders seek and use information to support the development of their functions and the performance of religious ceremonies. Thus, the categories of analysis created to interpret the data from the interviews were: (1) characteristics of the interviewees; (2) involvement in the Santo Daime religion; (3) roles and responsibilities; and (4) information behaviour (identification of information needs, search for information, and devices, means and sources used in the search, use and sharing of information).

This article presents the results of the interviews, highlighting the main characteristics, needs and challenges of the religious leaders concerning information. It also discusses the implications of these findings for the development of information services and resources aimed at this audience. Finally, it suggests some recommendations and directions for future research on the topic. The main limitation of the study is that only four religious leaders were interviewed, which did not allow for the capturing of data representing the cultural specifics of all of the countries in which Santo Daime has religious communities.

Results

Characteristics of interviewees

The Padrinhos and Madrinhas serve as symbolic figures for the Santo Daime religion and are responsible for guiding and supporting members on their faith journey. They fulfil organizational, administrative and ritual duties within the church (Labate and Pacheco, 2011). For this study, the four leaders interviewed are identified by the names Padrinho Basílio, Padrinho João, Madrinha Maria and Madrinha Salomé; they have been members of the doctrine for between 10 and 40 years. The first Godfather, Padrinho Basílio, is Brazilian and in his late sixties; the second Godfather, Padrinho João, is Finnish and in his thirties; the third interviewee, identified as Madrinha Maria, is Brazilian and in her late forties; and the fourth interviewee, Madrinha Salomé, is almost 60 years old and Finnish. All four interviewees self-declared as white.

Involvement in the Santo Daime religion

Padrinho Basílio recalled that the first time he encountered Santo Daime was through a video recorded by friends in 1983, and that when he heard an excerpt from a hymn which said that the Daime ‘is the Divine Eternal Father and all are divine beings’, the message aroused a lot of interest in him. However, it was only in November 1984, with the first trip of Padrinho Alfredo through Brazil,² that he effectively got to know the Daime, becoming a member two months later when he participated in a ceremony on the date that celebrates the day of São Sebastião.

Padrinho João emphasized that it was in the context of his first visit to Brazil, in the practice of capoeira and the use of cannabis, that spirituality was revealed to him and pushed him on in his search. On his second trip to Brazil, he had an experience with ayahuasca (in a shamanic context) and then participated in a Santo Daime ceremony: ‘That’s when I felt the call and decided that was my path’.

Madrinha Maria informed us that, at the age of 14, she watched a television report and read an article about Santo Daime in a magazine. However, she got to know Santo Daime only when she turned 18. Madrinha Salomé reported that she was informed about Santo Daime through a co-worker and attended a healing ceremony in a church in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Roles and responsibilities

Padrinho Basílio reported that he is the one who directs the ritual, together with his wife (the Madrinha of the church). However, he commented that the ritual is collective and everyone in the group plays a role as they acquire and improve their knowledge of the doctrine. Padrinho Basílio is also responsible for the administrative and organizational structure of the church, together with other members.

Padrinho João and Madrinha Salomé are the leaders of the Finnish church, being responsible for all the activities in the functioning of the church, such as organizing ceremonies, ensuring that the church follows the spiritual calendar of Santo Daime Brazil, and dealing with financial matters and the consumption of the sacrament, among other duties. Madrinha Salomé pointed out that the administration comprises three people – the president, the secretary and the treasurer. Padrinho João also serves as the main musician.

Madrinha Maria has administrative and financial duties and is a member of the Doctrinal Council of Santo Daime. She is one of those who are responsible for administrative activities, including, for example, the purchase of articles necessary for the work and general functioning of the church; janitorial tasks; the decoration of spaces; and the organization of rehearsals, ceremonies, feitios and mutirões.

Information behaviour

Regarding the information search behaviour and the use of information by these leaders, Padrinho Basílio pointed out that, at the beginning of the practice of religion, the most used sources of information were oral. According to him, information was accessed in rituals through the songs of the hymnals and lectures, which were used to guide people about the teachings of the doctrine. In this period, the use of handwritten hymn booklets and cassette tapes was common; there was no ciphered hymnal and tablature. According to Padrinho Basílio, since the 1980s, the sources of information have multiplied and communication between members has also occurred through printed materials. However, the transmission of the hinários occurred mainly orally because many of the followers of Padrinho Sebastião (one of the founders of the doctrine) had difficulty reading or were completely illiterate, and there was the added difficulty of access in the interior of the Amazon rainforest where the religion was practised.

Padrinho Basílio reported that there are currently several sources of information, such as books, hymn recordings, hymn notebooks, social networks and websites (such as the online documentation centre where all the historical memory of the people who have been relevant to the doctrine is kept). He added that, recently, with the COVID-19 pandemic, when people could not attend church in person, ceremonies, meetings and other gatherings were held online via Zoom, YouTube and Facebook, with oral communication between members during breaks in the ceremonies. He commented that he uses WhatsApp because it is a quick way to send messages about the church, courses and activities. This leader pointed out that each church has its own WhatsApp group and profile on social networks such as Instagram and Facebook. According to Padrinho Basílio, over the last three years, the Executive Secretariat of the ICEFLU has been carrying out a structural redesign, seeking an orientation that unites the churches located in different cities and countries, and, in this sense, the introduction of more efficient forms of communication and obtaining information is important.

Padrinho João reported that he uses the computer, the telephone, books and various sources of information on the Internet. When he needs information, he consults these sources to find, for example, details about the fundamentals of the doctrine, such as the rites of baptism, marriage and other ceremonies. Due to the distance from the main Daimist headquarters, the transmission of information via mobile phone applications, such as WhatsApp, is important in the exchange process.

Madrinha Maria stated that she uses all the available tools and technologies to obtain information, as well as consulting with people directly. For internal decisions, she speaks first with the church’s Doctrinal Council via WhatsApp, in face-to-face meetings or virtually, as was the case during the pandemic. To seek information, she accesses WhatsApp or makes phone calls. For the dissemination and disclosure of information of interest to the church and the community, Madrinha Maria reported that the means used depend on the objectives, type of information and groups of people to whom the information is directed. The most used communication channels are WhatsApp, the ICEFLU website (santodaime.org), Instagram and Facebook. Most of the information, including information received from the ICEFLU, is posted on the church’s general WhatsApp group.

Regarding information behaviour dealing with aspects related to rituals, Madrinha Salomé reported that she keeps a manual that records the norms of the church’s rituals. She also informed us that, for decision-making, general assemblies are held to review and update the decisions established in the documents available from the secretariat and kept in the archives. Regarding communication in general, Madrinha Salomé pointed out that there are the web pages of the brotherhood (santodaime.org), which are important sources for the dissemination of and access to information about the doctrine. According to Madrinha Salomé, the annual calendar of the church’s ceremonies is distributed to members once a year by forwarding emails. She also uses the telephone, Messenger and WhatsApp to distribute information about the ceremonies. She reported that, at the end of each ceremony, the next ceremony to be held is announced orally. She explained the importance of official information channels (such as the santodaime.org website) for people to access information about the doctrine. According to Madrinha Salomé, the availability of accurate and well-explained information allows members and visitors to resolve their doubts and avoids questions for the leaders: ‘The transmission of clear and concise information helps to save time and energy in administration’.

Padrinho João stated that he most frequently uses the sources that contain the norms of the rituals, such as the santodaime.org website and the ICEFLU communication networks. He reported using various means of communication, such as Messenger, WhatsApp and emails, which are also used to disseminate information to the adepts. The official Santo Daime website (santodaime.org) is a source of information with regard to accessing recordings of hymns and checking pronunciations – ‘something very important because we are outside Brazil’. Padrinho João emphasized, however, that spiritual and esoteric matters continue only to be shared orally.

Discussion

After identifying the characteristics of the interviewees, with the interviews we sought to understand from their reports what the function and responsibilities of each of the respondents were, and consequently the nature of the work and attributes of the Padrinhos and Madrinhas. From the data obtained, it was possible to identify aspects that allowed us to understand more about the role of the religious leader in Santo Daime and its relationship with the doctrine.

It is important to highlight that all churches have an administrative structure and are subject to a hierarchy, in which the Padrinho and/or Madrinha represent the highest level of leadership. Thus, the importance of the leaders in the conduct and administration of the church’s assets and the entire structure linked to the church is evident, as they are the main people who are responsible for the management of the church and the decision-making on its routines. This hierarchization is defined by De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018), who point out that religious organizations also need to be based on foundations that allow their functioning, especially since the organizational structure of churches is essential for the exercise of their activities. The importance of the set of beliefs and practices developed by the leaders should also be emphasized, and how they are used to gather around the church and its precepts subjects who follow the doctrine of Santo Daime (see Passos, 2006). According to Passos, religious leaders are responsible for building faith communities, as well as animating and encouraging their members by sustaining community life based on their actions and motivations.

Regarding searching for information, it was shown that the information needs of the leaders surveyed are mainly linked to religious and spiritual aspects, especially the Santo Daime ceremonies. However, the search for general knowledge to assist in the resolution of administrative and management issues of the church was also evident. Specifically, it was observed that the interviewees need to seek information on conducting ceremonies in certain situations, as reported by Padrinho João when he needed information, for example, about the fundamentals of the doctrine, such as the rites of baptism, marriage and other ceremonies, and consulted the primary sources of the church.

Dankasa (2016) reports a similar result when describing the pattern of the daily life information needs of Catholic clerics in northern Nigeria. According to Dankasa, the participants discussed some of the information needs in their daily life that resulted from the very nature of being a cleric. This included the need for information on church teachings, sermons/homilies and the resolution of pastoral issues to meet the demands of their ministry or for continuous knowledge acquisition.

Regarding the information search behaviour and use of information by these leaders related to their needs, they pointed out the use of different means and sources, both analogue and digital, to inform themselves about the daily routine of their church. It should be noted that tools such as documents filed in church secretariats and technological bases were mentioned, as well as printed and electronic newsletters, emails, messaging platforms such as WhatsApp and Messenger, websites, the Santo Daime documentation centre, landlines and mobile phones, and social networks. Particularly during the years of the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of digital media for the dissemination of information related to religion, as well as the performance of religious ceremonies, intensified.

The use of technological tools, to a greater or lesser extent, by the interviewees should also be noted, which is in line with the Michels’ (2014) research, which investigated how church leaders in Nova Scotia experienced the search for information and observed aspects in the practice of these religious, such as the frequent use of new information technologies in their ceremonies and rituals.

Still, the relationship between the Santo Daime religion and the production and use of information occurs, as Dankasa (2016) points out in his study in Nigeria. Regarding the search for and use of information by Santo Daime leaders, the research also indicates that this religion has its own information culture, based on orality and ritualistic and mystical experiences. Also, as Dankasa (2016) points out in his work, in this study on Santo Daime leaders, the author inserted the concepts of information science, anthropology and the history of religions. The author also used his own experience as a member of the Santo Daime religion and as an information professional to offer deeper reflections on the topic. Similarly, Lindele Gunton (2011) describes her personal experience as a member of a Christian church and an information professional to reflect on the subject, and although she did not conduct empirical data collection with church participants, she proposes some research questions for future studies.

Regarding the information passed on and disseminated by the religious leaders interviewed, it was noted that it was mainly related to ceremonies and celebrations, such as weddings and baptisms, and ‘uniforms’³ and other matters of a religious nature related to services and their dynamics. One of the main challenges of online communication is ensuring clarity and coherence in the messages exchanged. As pointed out by Choo (2006), the objective of passing on information that aims to promote and facilitate its sharing is a fundamental aspect for the creation of meaning, the construction of knowledge, and decision-making. However, this objective may not be achieved if the information is ambiguous, vague, or incomplete.

Similar to the information behaviour demonstrated by the Santo Daime leaders interviewed for this study, according to Borlund and Pharo (2019), the information needs belonged to different domains of social life – specifically, in this case, the need to find information that supported them in carrying out their administrative work and as spiritual leaders.

Regarding the type, motivation, path and meaning of the Santo Daime doctrine for the leaders, and what led them to their current position in the church hierarchy, there are similarities and differences between the spirituality of the Santo Daime leaders and that of Christian clerics – for example, the data presented by authors such as Allen (1987), Dankasa (2015), De Cássia Machado and Rodrigues Barbosa (2018), Lambert (2010), Michels (2014), Phillips (1992), Porcella (1973), Roland (2008a, 2008b), Saleh and Bakar (2013) and Wicks (1999) points out that the spirituality of the Santo Daime leaders is not the same as that of the Christian clergy. Bakar (2013) comments that in most research carried out in the field of information behaviour in religious contexts, the participants are defined as professionals who engage with information resources to fulfil their functions as preachers, administrators and counsellors. This behaviour is contrary to the reports of the Santo Daime leaders in the current study, whose profile, described in the contextualization of the interviewees, indicates that there is no professionalism or specific training required to assume their function in the doctrine.

Finally, the reflections offered by the interviewees are in line with the perceptions of De Cássia Machado (2019), who states that the support of religious leaders helps in the edification of a religion in its spiritual and social aspects, and thus their primary function is to take care of and transmit religious principles, given their responsibility to pass on sacred teachings, which must be preserved and disseminated, and maintain their originality.

Dynamics of the circulation of information in Santo Daime

The objective of the analysis was to describe and understand the information behaviour of the leaders of the Santo Daime religion, who are responsible for guiding its followers and managing the administrative and ritual issues of the religion. To this end, we investigated how these leaders seek and use information to support the development of their functions and the performance of religious ceremonies.

It is important to note that the nuances and depth of information needs are better understood in light of their domain and purpose, since it allows us to understand in more depth the context of the research and its motivations, considering that among the main objectives of communication within religious institutions is the maintenance and dissemination of beliefs and ideals, highlighting that it must occur in an organized and systematic way so that its purposes are achieved. Regarding the results obtained from the interviews with the Santo Daime leaders, it is possible to affirm that institutional communication still occurs informally – predominantly through the transfer of information in a random, verbal way, with an emphasis on orality; this was confirmed by the interviewees, who emphasized the transfer of information among members during meetings and the rituals of the group. The importance of technologies was highlighted, especially the use of mobile phones with their multiple functions, as well as WhatsApp, although the use of computers, virtual social networks, and applications such as Messenger and email is also common.

Regarding the issue of age, although it was not the object of study in this research, it emerged during the interviews. Therefore, it is important to reflect on this issue, since it was noted that both of the younger leaders, Padrinho João and Madrinha Maria, reported more effective and frequent use of technologies, pointing out more exchanges. This is in line with a concept currently under debate that deals with the generations of digital immigrants (older people who have become technologically ‘literate’) and digital natives (people who were born during or after the advent of the Internet and the ‘technological revolution’ arising from new information, communications and knowledge technologies). It should also be noted that both of the younger interviewees emphasized more constant use of technological resources in church routines and communication with other people and units, while Padrinho Basílio, the oldest of the interviewees, reflected more on aspects related to the Santo Daime tradition and spiritual messages. In this sense, further readings into and deepening of the gender and generational categories are appropriate, which are reflected in the uses of technologies in the daily practice and information behaviour of Santo Daime members.

It was shown that the leaders are hierarchically responsible for passing on the most important information. However, it is possible to verify that the church is not structured in a vertical way, providing other members with access to the information necessary for participation in ceremonies, among other things. In addition, Santo Daime maintains an updated website, which contains a memory centre and an online documentation centre, in addition to other information that allows the monitoring of the routines and teachings of the doctrine. The churches also have a routine presence on social networks, with updated profiles and actions in groups such as WhatsApp, Instagram and Facebook.

The cultural and spiritual factors adopted by the religion, which are indicators of its detachment from material meanings since its beginnings in the interior of the Amazon rainforest, seem to be reflected in the information behaviour of the leaders interviewed, who, due to their hierarchical position, reflect the thinking that prevails in the religion of limited attachment to material aspects, being more sensitive to spiritual issues although attuned to the daily needs of the church.

Information behaviour as a tool for improving the transmission of information

The church, as a nonprofit religious institution, has a primary mission of helping people achieve sensory and spiritual growth. However, this does not mean that the church can neglect its administrative aspects, which are essential for its sustainability as an institution, as the theoretical framework has shown. Thus, the characteristics of the leaders of the doctrine and the organizational model of the churches should not be used as excuses for the inefficient use of information practices, which may indicate a lack of information behavior that meets the needs of both the church and its followers.

The construction of a well-planned and applied information network will increase the possibilities of improving communication among members, since the findings suggest, if not a thoughtful expansion project, then a desire and a perspective for the growth of Santo Daime, which has been spreading to several countries. In this sense, especially considering that Santo Daime has a worldwide network of churches, with significant expansion of its centre and, predictably, also of its members, effective institutional communication with the use of available technological resources, which are easily accessible and on a large scale, would enable and facilitate the exchange of information between the leadership and its members, and vice versa.

Conclusion: the need to expand knowledge of Santo Daime

Due to the lack of studies addressing the topic, it would be desirable to conduct research on the information behaviour of members of the religion to cross-check the perception of how information reaches users, given the importance of external communication as part of the information process. As for the expected results, it should be noted that we have presented a conceptual framework that illustrates how information can be used for learning within the church, considering four main areas: growing in faith, developing relationships, managing the church, and responding to religious knowledge. We have also sought to discuss how these aspects, linked to the field of research, support the expansion of knowledge in areas linked to the sciences of religion, which has still been little addressed. Finally, we believe that studies aimed at deepening knowledge in this field can help, together with information science, to foster awareness of the impact that involvement with information has on the learning experience and its prioritization in community contexts.

Finally, regarding the results obtained, it has been demonstrated that the most used sources of information are the Daimist doctrine, personal experience, and contact with other leaders and the institution. Above all, information is sought mainly to guide the participants in rituals, solve problems, improve knowledge and strengthen faith. The information is used in a critical, reflective and creative way, always seeking consistency with the Daimist principles. Thus, it can be affirmed that this research contributes to the understanding of the information behaviour of a little-studied social group, and the appreciation of cultural and religious diversity in the information society.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Evandro Ribeiro Rodrigues

Ana Lúcia Terra

Notes

Appendix 1

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