Libraries’ roles in media and information literacy education: Obtaining the opinions of South Korean volunteer librarians through the Delphi method 1

Abstract

South Korea’s official development assistance activities emphasize the significant role of education, with increasing attention towards the potential of libraries. Media and information literacy has become imperative for leading a productive life, highlighting the crucial role of libraries in enhancing media and information literacy competencies, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. However, limited research exists on this topic. This study explores how libraries could contribute to improving the media and information literacy competencies of people in low- and middle-income countries, drawing from interviews mainly with South Korean volunteer librarians with experience in low- and middle-income countries using the Delphi method. The challenges in supporting media and information literacy capacity-building in libraries in low- and middle-income countries include a shortage of skilled personnel, limited resources, inadequate understanding of public development assistance and global citizenship, and insufficient publicity. The survey participants emphasized the need for specific qualifications for librarians to effectively contribute to media and information literacy education. They recommended continuous group-based training, incorporating field education and online courses to build media and information literacy competencies.

Keywords

Official development assistance Delphi method media and information literacy libraries low- and middle-income countries

Introduction

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2023) defines official development assistance (ODA) as ‘government aid that promotes and specifically targets the economic development and welfare of developing countries’. In ODA, the governments of donor countries contribute to the development of recipient countries by providing financial, human and technological resources either to the governments of the recipient countries directly or to international organizations. Education is one of the most prominent areas in South Korea’s ODA activities. In 2021, the South Korean government allocated US$301.5 million in ODA for education, accounting for 7.2% of its total ODA budget (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2022). The South Korean government lists education as one of the priorities in its 2023 Annual ODA Implementation Plan. In the Education Mid-Term Strategy 2021–2025, published by the Korea International Cooperation Agency, building educational capacity and access in partner countries is emphasized (Donor Tracker, 2023).

Education ODA used to focus heavily on hardware, such as building schools and providing technological equipment. In recent years, software (skills, behaviours, culture, etc.) has begun to play a more significant role in ODA for education and culture. Libraries occupy an important position in non-formal and informal education. They function as a learning environment, provide materials for independent learning, and motivate users to learn with clear achievement goals. Therefore, they have been attracting attention from policymakers, donors and researchers. Library ODA projects usually involve the construction of libraries and dispatch of librarians. They improve the quality of life of the beneficiaries, provide access to education, bridge information gaps, and strengthen the cultural capabilities of the recipient countries, which are usually low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

The Korea International Cooperation Agency is a South Korean governmental agency that is responsible for the implementation of bilateral grants and other technical cooperation activities between South Korea and other countries and organizations. Established in April 1991, its duties include supporting poverty eradication and economic and social development in LMICs, and promoting friendly and cooperative relationships between South Korea and LMICs. The Agency has been organizing the dispatch of volunteer librarians overseas since 2005. A number of other South Korean government agencies and institutions, such as the Ministry of Education, Foreign Trade Bank, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Gyeonggi Provincial Government, have also been collaborating in the establishment of libraries, training of local librarians in LMICs, and dispatch of experts and volunteer groups. From 2005 to 2022, 297 South Korean librarians joined volunteer groups that were dispatched to 31 LMICs in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The activities conducted by the volunteer librarians range from the initial establishment of libraries to tasks involving information and communications technology (ICT), training for local librarians and organizing cultural events.

Media and information literacy (MIL) is defined by UNESCO (2022) as ‘an interrelated set of competencies that help people to maximize advantages and minimize harm in the new information, digital and communication landscapes’. In the Information Age, MIL has become an integrated and necessary component of literacy. The ability to access, analyse, evaluate and create media information has become indispensable in modern life. In this context, librarians, as educators, need to be MIL experts who are responsible for cultivating the critical thinking skills of the public (Eva and Shea, 2018). Libraries, as educational institutions, need to reinforce their role in enhancing the MIL competencies of library users by providing spaces to practise media use and creation and organizing training programmes (Kang and Jung, 2019).

Problem statement

Advances in technology and communication are rapidly changing the way people live, work and interact. These changes were accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which drove remote interactions into daily life around the world. The development of online technology made it possible to engage safely in economic activities and provided convenience in non-contact and non-face-to-face situations. However, there were side effects, such as the ‘infodemic’, in which fake news, especially stories related to COVID-19, spread as rampantly as the pandemic itself (United Nations, 2020). The socially underprivileged were most heavily impacted by this infodemic. They suffered from anxiety, which could not be easily relieved because they did not have adequate access to accurate information. Aduloju’s (2021) study investigates social media platform posts and activities during the pandemic in Nigeria and shows that the lack of MIL was linked to various negative emotions induced by the overwhelming misinformation about COVID-19. It concludes that MIL skills need to be urgently promoted to fight misinformation and spread accurate information on health in media and technological environments.

The situation of these information-vulnerable groups has not changed much since the end of the pandemic. It is challenging for them to utilize everyday online services, such as learning and shopping platforms. More importantly, they have difficulty in accessing critical health-related information and work opportunities. In the post-pandemic world, how to ensure that people who have limited access to digital tools can still enjoy a productive life has become a demanding task. In this view, Internet access has become a new fundamental human right (Kim, 2019).

The development of digital technology has promoted freedom of expression and enhanced flexibility in economic activities, but it has also led to the rise of severe problems, such as privacy exposure, cybersecurity threats, technology addiction and cyberviolence (Jeong, 2020). An effective countermeasure is to build people’s MIL capacity. For example, an empirical study in Indonesia found that community learning centres’ efforts in MIL education nurtured the capacities of the community members in critical thinking and information evaluation, contributing to the prevention of cybercrime during the pandemic (Nurhayati et al., 2021).

In addition, recent years have witnessed a surge in various forms of migration from LMICs to high-income countries. The laws and policies of the destination countries often prevent immigrants, particularly youth, from receiving systematic education. Addressing this challenge requires more cross-cultural understanding, intercultural dialogue and cooperation. International organizations have argued that MIL can be used to improve the efficiency and outcome of actions in these aspects (United Nations Alliance of Civilizations, 2014). In this context, decentralized knowledge and information institutions like libraries have great untapped potential in information provision and education. Libraries have long been providing equal, inclusive and sustainable access to information and knowledge, and serving as educational institutions to promote information literacy. To respond to the recent shift of the digital environment, libraries need to develop additional institutional functions that nurture users’ skills in critical thinking, communication, cooperation and creative problem-solving (Choi, 2021). In the Information Age, knowledge sharing has become so common that the line between educators and learners has become blurry, and the prevailing one-way instruction mode cannot meet the changing situation. Accordingly, libraries need to be able to deliver the holistic education that society requires by providing diverse and creative experiences (Lee et al., 2019).

Based on the above, this study aims to explore the ways in which libraries could contribute to improving the MIL competencies of people in LMICs. To achieve this goal, the author interviewed South Korean volunteer librarians. Because of their rich first-hand experience, their opinions on South Korean library ODA projects and MIL education are valuable input for international development and library science in general. This study attempts to answer the following research questions.

Research Question 1: What experience and qualifications should South Korean librarians possess to better contribute to MIL education in LMICs and international cooperation?

Research Question 2: In the opinion of South Korean volunteer librarians, what measures should be taken to strengthen MIL education in LMICs?

Literature review

The English word ‘literacy’ originates from the Latin word literatus, meaning a well-educated class interested in literature. In the Middle Ages, education – and hence the ability to read and write – was a privilege that could only be enjoyed by a small number of people. However, in the Industrial Age, reading, writing and arithmetic became essential living skills to meet the demand of large-scale manufacturing, which was then both the most prominent achievement and the most powerful driving force of social change (Kim and Kwon, 2008). The connotation of literacy nowadays is no longer confined to the ability to read and write. It has expanded to include the ability to operate information devices and acquire, process and use information appropriately. These are the basic abilities needed to lead a productive life in the Information Age (Kim and Kwon, 2008).

MIL is an umbrella term that covers several concepts related to literacy in various aspects of media and information, such as media literacy, digital literacy, information literacy, social media literacy, news literacy, ICT literacy and Internet literacy. These concepts are briefly explained in Table 1.

Table 1.

Types and definitions of literacy in various aspects of media and information.

Concept	Definition
Media literacy	Ability to access media, understand media critically and interact with media
Digital literacy	Ability to understand and use various types of information provided by computers
Information literacy	Ability to effectively and critically access, evaluate and use information ethically to solve problems and communicate
Social media literacy	Competencies required to independently enjoy social media culture, including critical interpretation, reciprocal bargaining power and technological network awareness
News literacy	Ability to combine knowledge of news production, distribution and consumption with skills that help audiences assert control over their relationship with news
ICT literacy	Ability to use digital technology, communications tools and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information in order to function in a knowledge society
Internet literacy	Ability to locate, retrieve, interpret and evaluate the context in which information was created or produced

Source: International ICT Literacy Panel (2002), Kim (2018), Leung and Lee (2012).

Several organizations have developed their own terms and concepts related to literacy in media and information. UNESCO uses the term MIL and elaborates on its connotations by converging various concepts that are closely related to and interact with each other. UNESCO (2021) suggests the following as MIL competencies:

Understanding the role of information, media, and digital communications in sustainable development and democracy;

Understanding content and its uses;

Accessing information effectively and efficiently and practicing ethics;

Critically evaluating information and information sources and ethical practices;

Applying digital and traditional media formats;

Situating the sociocultural context of information, media, and digital content;

Promoting MIL among learners/citizens and managing the required changes. (UNESCO, 2021)

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, launched in 2002 with the input of US educators and policymakers, announced the 21st Century Learning Framework (Battelle for Kids, 2019). The core competencies presented in the framework are learning and innovation skills; information, media and technology skills; and life and career skills.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2015) has also presented the competencies needed for the future through its Education 2030 project. This approach established a learning framework (the Learning Compass) that can be used at many levels of the education system, including by individual learners, education practitioners, system leaders, policy designers and institutional decision-makers. It includes the following elements (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2019):

Core foundations: skills, knowledge, attitudes and values;

Transformative competencies: creating new value, reconciling tensions and dilemmas, and taking responsibility;

The learning process for continuous improvement: anticipation – action – reflection.

The European Union’s Assessment of Transversal Skills 2020 (European School Education Platform, 2018) aims to identify the skills ‘needed for handling the complex array of information in the digital era, making sense of globalized societies, as well as responding to the requirements of 21st century job markets’. It presents digital literacy as a core literacy, with several subcategories: information literacy, collaboration and communication skills, creativity and innovation, and self-directed learning. Information literacy includes the following items:

Plan strategies to guide inquiry;

Evaluate and select information sources and tools based on the appropriateness to specific tasks;

Locate, organize, analyse, evaluate, synthesize and ethically use information from a variety of sources and media;

Process information and construct new knowledge;

Integrate new knowledge and apply to new situations. (Konstantinou et al., 2017)

Another notable framework was developed by Hobbs for the Aspen Institute. It lists the essential competencies for digital information literacy as follows:

ACCESS Finding and using media and technology tools skillfully and sharing appropriate and relevant information with others

ANALYZE & EVALUATE Comprehending messages and using critical thinking to analyze message quality, veracity, credibility, and point of view, while considering potential effects or consequences of messages

CREATE Composing or generating content using creativity and confidence in self-expression, with awareness of purpose, audience, and composition techniques

REFLECT Applying social responsibility and ethical principles to one’s own identity and lived experience, communication behavior, and conduct

ACT Working individually and collaboratively to share knowledge and solve problems in the family, the workplace, and the community, and participating as a member of a community at local, regional, national, and international levels. (Hobbs, 2010: 19)

The American Library Association considers digital literacy as the ability to use ICTs to find, evaluate, create and communicate information (Digital Literacy Task Force, 2013: 1–2). It requires both cognitive and technical skills. According to the American Library Association, a digitally literate person:

possesses the variety of skills – cognitive and technical – required to find, understand, evaluate, create, and communicate digital information in a wide variety of formats;

is able to use diverse technologies appropriately and effectively to search for and retrieve information, interpret search results, and judge the quality of the information retrieved;

understands the relationships among technology, lifelong learning, personal privacy, and appropriate stewardship of information;

uses these skills and the appropriate technologies to communicate and collaborate with peers, colleagues, family, and on occasion the general public;

uses these skills to participate actively in civic society and contribute to a vibrant, informed, and engaged community. (Digital Literacy Task Force, 2013: 2)

A few of the other frameworks that are worth mentioning are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Additional frameworks of MIL/digital literacy developed by various organizations.

Source	Term	Components	Details
DQ Institute (2019)	Digital intelligence	Digital identity	Digital citizen identity Digital co-creator identity Digital change-maker identity
		Digital use	Balanced use of technology Healthy use of technology Civic use of technology
		Digital safety	Behavioural cyber-risk management Content cyber-risk management Commercial and community cyber-risk management
		Digital security	Personal cybersecurity management Network security management Organizational cybersecurity management
		Digital emotional intelligence	Digital empathy Self-awareness and management Relationship management
		Digital communication	Digital footprint management Online communication and collaboration Public and mass communication
		Digital literacy	MIL Content creation and computational literacy Data and artificial intelligence literacy
		Digital rights	Privacy management Intellectual property rights management Participation rights management
Government of British Columbia (n.d.)	Digital literacy	Research and information literacy	Information literacy Information processing and management
		Critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making	Specialized and advanced skills for learning
		Creativity and innovation	Specialized and advanced skills for creative expression
		Digital citizenship	Internet safety Privacy and security Relationships and communication Cyberbullying Digital footprint and reputation Self-image and identity Creative credit and copyright Legal and ethical aspects Balanced attitude towards technology Understanding and awareness of the role of ICT in society
		Communication and collaboration	Technology-mediated communication and collaboration
		Technology operations and concepts	General knowledge and functional skills Use in everyday life Informed decision-making Seamless use demonstrating self-efficacy Learning about and with digital technologies
Vuorikari et al. (2022)	Digital competence	Information and data literacy	Browsing, searching and filtering data, information and digital content Evaluating data, information and digital content Managing data, information and digital content
		Communication and collaboration	Interacting through digital technologies Sharing through digital technologies Engaging in citizenship through digital technologies Collaborating through digital technologies Netiquette Managing digital identity
		Digital content creation	Developing digital content Integrating and re-elaborating digital content Copyright and licenses Programming
		Safety	Protecting devices Protecting personal data and privacy Protecting health and well-being Protecting the environment
		Problem-solving	Solving technical problems Identifying needs and technological responses Creatively using digital technologies Identifying digital competence gaps

All these frameworks highlight the ability to understand the functions of various media, to use them ethically and to participate in civil life with media skills. The importance of copyright practices is also frequently mentioned. This study follows the UNESCO definition (UNESCO, 2021), which was introduced to the survey participants at the beginning of the survey questionnaires.

Researchers were regarding the educational functions of libraries as an important way to build the MIL competencies of library users as early as the 2000s (Godwin and Parker, 2008; Saunders, 2009). Studies show that although instructional programmes by public libraries are effective in improving users’ competencies in information literacy (Cobus, 2008; Nielsen and Borlund, 2011), suitable approaches need to be developed for non-proficient users (Gross and Latham, 2007). Recent years have witnessed a sharp increase in the amount and impact of fake, fabricated and misleading information around the world. In several empirical studies recently conducted in diverse populations and cultures, MIL education has been consistently shown to significantly improve the capacity of consumers in assessing the quality of information and discerning fake news and misinformation (Dame Adjin-Tettey, 2022; Guess et al., 2020; Hameleers, 2022; Jones-Jang et al., 2021; Orhan, 2023). Consequently, researchers argue that MIL is critical for encouraging healthy social engagement and safeguarding democracy (Goldstein, 2020; Hameleers, 2022; Martens and Hobbs, 2015). Libraries can play significant roles in MIL education to raise public awareness and build the capacity to fight against fake news and cyber defamation, protect against cybercrimes and uphold online ethics (De Paor and Heravi, 2020; Hackett, 2018). Accordingly, libraries and librarians are expanding their services for knowledge creation and collaboration using digital devices in accordance with the trends in the media and information environment (Kang and Jung, 2019).

The available literature on library ODA is scarce. In an article calling for more US librarians to engage in international development, Tabachnick (1989) introduced ways to participate in such projects (e.g. through the Fulbright Program) and provided examples of development projects where assistance had been requested in establishing and operating university libraries. Tabachnick suggested that the factors for successful library ODA were: respecting local voices and indigenous knowledge; patience and persistence; and imagination and creativity. In an analysis of Japan’s library ODA activities, Fukuda (1998) described the characteristics, budget, funding mechanisms and operation of Japanese library ODA. Interestingly, the Japanese government dispatched 38 volunteer librarians to 14 countries from 1967 to 1995. Their tasks involved training librarians, developing index systems and establishing new libraries. The Japanese volunteer librarians reported having to overcome some hurdles in performing their duties, including insufficient language training before dispatch, the low level of literacy of local library users, the lack of financial resources, book censorship in the recipient countries, challenges in conserving and preserving historical materials, and the low status of librarians in the local society. Fukuda recommended some measures for improving Japanese library ODA projects, including: committing to long-term (at least several years) continuous investment; considering funding regional instead of bilateral projects; placing education and libraries as a higher priority in ODA plans and matching the needs of local people; and establishing a professional body for library ODA.

By introducing the experiences and opinions of South Korean volunteer librarians, which have never been examined before, this study adds a valuable angle to the existing body of knowledge on library ODA. This inadequately discussed subject merits much wider attention, particularly in the current information environment.

Methodology

The Delphi method is a methodology for developing guidelines and policies based on the opinions of experts that was developed by the RAND Corporation in 1950 (Nasa et al., 2021). It is based on the principle of democratic decision-making that the opinion of the majority is more accurate than that of the minority on a vague or complex problem (Lee, 2001). In the Delphi procedure, a mediator guides the entire process. The mediator solicits opinions from 5 to 20 experts on a specific issue two to three times, and then synthesizes them into a collective judgement. The Delphi method is widely used to achieve consensus on future directions, set goals and develop standards in a specific field in a situation where it is difficult to apply an appropriate quantitative research method, such as establishing education policies, predicting science trends and deciding development directions (Park, 2005). In the field of MIL education, the Delphi method has been applied to research on a wide range of topics. The content needed for information literacy education in Korean universities has been investigated using the Delphi method (Lee, 2004). Warren (2010) conducted a Delphi study to obtain the consensus of school library media specialists in the state of Georgia on the definition of 21st-century literacies, relevant skill sets and approaches to integrate 21st-century literacies into the curriculum. A similar study was carried out with 13 experts on the prospect of information literacy education in academic libraries and the role librarians would play (Saunders, 2009). To develop an information literacy curriculum for postgraduates in Pakistan, Batool et al. (2022) surveyed 13 experts following the Delphi process to identify critical components.

The study consisted of two parts: expert consultation and two rounds of Delphi surveys. The consultation sessions were held with seven librarians with volunteer librarian experience in LMICs between 28 July 2021 and 10 August 2021. These experts were asked to comment on the difficulties in supporting MIL capacity-building and sustainable education in library ODA projects.

Based on the information obtained, the questionnaire for the first round of the Delphi survey was developed, which included three sets of open-ended questions (nine in total) and an additional question for free comments. The first set was about developing MIL education factors for LMICs; the second was on the content and format of training for fostering the MIL education competencies of the dispatched librarians; and the third concerned cooperation plans for MIL education and how to ensure that libraries are supported for the Sustainable Development Goals and recognized as a partner in the Sustainable Development Goals. The expert opinions collected in this survey formed the basis for the questions of the second round of the Delphi survey. The structure of the questionnaire for the first Delphi survey is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3.

Structure of the questionnaire for the first Delphi survey.

Element	Content	Question number
Respondent information	Affiliation, major, specialization, etc.
Questions related to MIL education competencies	Acquisition of MIL education knowledge	1
	Training to strengthen MIL education competencies	2
	Cooperation between dispatched librarians and local librarians	3
	Methods and media for conducting MIL education	4
	Qualifications and experience for conducting MIL education training	7
Questions related to MIL competency	MIL education in LMICs	5
Questions related to MIL competency	MIL elements and their importance	6
Other	Cooperation in library	8
Other	Education for sustainable development (ESD) and library	9

The questionnaire for the second round of the Delphi survey was structured and consisted of six groups of 5-point Likert scale questions (82 in total). The questions asked the respondents to rank the importance of various measures for strengthening MIL education competencies and their suitability. This survey also included a question (designated as Group 2-3) on the training time needed for the dispatched librarians to understand and practise MIL education. At the end of the questionnaire, the participants were invited to provide free comments. The Likert score data was then analysed, and the free comments were synthesized.

Because the sample size of the second round of the Delphi survey was very small (with a maximum of 8 responses for a question), normality tests and related analyses (e.g. 90% or 95% confidence intervals) were deemed not applicable. Instead, a simple approach was applied to analyse the Likert scores. First, the average scores and standard deviations were calculated. Consensus was considered reached on an item if more than 70% of the responses (≥ 5 for items with 7 responses and ≥ 6 for items with 8 responses) scored within the range of mean ± standard deviation. For each group of questions, if a respondent provided scores outside the range of mean ± standard deviation for more than 40% of the questions (Group 1: ≥ 6; Group 2-1: ≥ 4; Group 2-2: ≥ 8; Group 3-1: ≥ 6; Group 3-2: ≥ 4; Group 4: ≥ 8), they were designated as an ‘outlier’ – that is, someone who was in strong disagreement with the other respondents. The outliers were then given the average scores of the other respondents and asked if they would like to change their opinions. In the actual Delphi process, there was one outlier and they changed their answers after being contacted, so a consensus was reached after two iterations.

The two rounds of Delphi surveys were conducted via email between 5 September 2022 and 15 October 2022. The first round had nine respondents and the second had eight. The participants came from diverse backgrounds: volunteer librarians with expertise in MIL education, librarians with experience in LMICs, government and civil organization officials, and researchers in related fields such as library education, vocational education and international cooperation. The background information of the participants is shown in Table 4. It should be noted that all of the participants had volunteered in the Korea International Cooperation Agency’s librarian dispatch programme.

Table 4.

Background information of the Delphi survey participants.

Interviewee number	Occupation	Undergraduate major	Relevant experience	Expertise
1	Teacher-librarian and library activist	Library and Information Science	30 years of experience in libraries and over 5 years of experience in piloting MIL education through school libraries	School library
2	University professor	Library and Information Science	10 years of experience in MIL research	Literacy
3	University professor	Library and Information Science	20 years of experience in MIL research	Media information
4	Teacher-librarian and author of books on MIL	Library and Information Science	Had published three books on MIL
5	Teacher-librarian	Library and Information Science	Over 10 years of experience in researching and promoting libraries’ role in lifelong education	Library education
6	High school international exchange and cooperation officer	Vocational Training	Over 10 years of experience in organizing international cooperation activities in education	High school education and international exchangeVocational education
7	Official, Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education	Computer EngineeringNews and BroadcastingCareer Counselling	20 years of experience in developing ICT education programmes	Career educationInformation and computer education
8	Public library librarian	Library and Information Science	Over 20 years of experience in library establishment and operation	Library operation
9	Official, City Cultural Foundation	Library and Information Science	Over 10 years of experience in designing and implementing cultural programmes	Cultural programme operation

The full study procedure is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Full procedure of the study.

Findings

First Delphi survey

This section presents the responses of the experts participating in the first Delphi survey. They were asked to propose the MIL education competencies that should be provided by libraries in LMICs for librarians, based on their experience in MIL education or international cooperation. Competencies can be categorized into cognitive elements, such as knowledge and skills, and non-cognitive factors, such as values and attitudes (Rychen and Salganik, 2000). The experts’ responses are listed under these two categories, followed by their opinions on what qualifications are needed to conduct MIL education. The major opinions expressed by the experts on various topics related to knowledge and skills in MIL education are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5.

Experts’ major opinions on knowledge and skills related to MIL education.

Topic	Major opinions
Ways in which experts acquire MIL education knowledge	Self-directed learning Training sessions In-career learning Professional knowledge obtained during college study Observations made in open classes
Preferred way of acquiring MIL education knowledge	College courses Self-directed learning
Methods of training that should be provided to dispatched librarians to strengthen MIL education	Field training: Continuous research and training Hands-on and group practice in MIL instruction with audiences of various literacy levels Remote training: Online training (one-way or interactive) using materials from UNESCO and IFLA Important to develop and distribute teaching and learning materials that librarians can use to teach in LMICs Important to understand the recipient institute and its surrounding environment
MIL education approach	Key factors mentioned included: Critical understanding Creative production Participation Ethical issues Cooperation with educational institutions such as schools or other external organizations such as local governments Experts’ opinions differed on the order of importance of these factors
Other educational methods and approaches	Collective education Online teaching provided together by dispatched volunteer librarians and local librarians Direct education for users from librarians with adequate MIL competencies Offline courses where users can gather and form a network with each other and enhance learning outcomes Self-directed learning (e.g. computer-aided scenario simulation, role playing, games, case studies, small group discussions, brainstorming) Theoretical study to understand and criticize the media and information (positive and negative functions of media, fake news detection, etc.) followed by hands-on practice in using and creating media information

Values and attitudes significantly influence competencies. Values are connected with underlying factors such as the culture, customs, traditions and laws of the group to which people belong in daily life, forming their perspectives and influencing their beliefs, attitudes and behaviours (Hwang and Seo, 2017). Attitudes contribute to the development and execution of competencies by shaping behaviours (Vitello et al., 2021). The Delphi survey participants provided plenty of comments regarding these aspects, as listed in Table 6.

Table 6.

Experts’ major opinions on values and attitudes related to MIL education.

Topic	Major opinions
Values and attitudes that are critical for cultivating MIL competencies	Cooperation Networking – for example, among MIL educators and educational institutions, and among librarians in recipient countries and donor countries
Measures to promote smooth cooperation	Assess the needs of local librarians in practical training Pay attention to the practical application of library theories Experienced experts and librarians can mentor less experienced librarians Librarians from recipient institutions could be invited to South Korea for training MIL education activities and materials should be shared on a regular basis through personal and public channels
Reasons why MIL education in libraries in LMICs is essential	There has been a paradigm shift in the information environment, education and society The is a demand in education for democratic citizenship and digital citizenship People in LMICs are interested in information, regardless of their computer skills Libraries are the most effective conduit for access to media and information in the local environment

The participants were also asked what qualifications dispatched librarians needed in order to conduct MIL education in the libraries of LMICs. Their responses were divided into those focusing on cognitive factors and those focusing on non-cognitive factors, as shown in Table 7. The experts emphasized that cognitive and non-cognitive elements interact with and complement each other.

Table 7.

Experts’ major opinions on the qualifications needed by dispatched librarians to conduct MIL education.

Factor	Major opinions
Cognitive factors (knowledge and skills)	Extensive experience in library work, fieldwork and volunteering Experience in educational activities and planning and conducting cultural programmes Foreign language proficiency
Non-cognitive factors (values and attitudes)	Understanding of local culture Supporting motives Capacity for communication and cooperation

In addition, the participants were requested to suggest measures for delivering high-quality MIL education in libraries in LMICs. Their recommendations included:

Ensure adequate basic literacy education;

Highlight the role of libraries by identifying and clearly defining the role of libraries in sustainable education, developing research materials, carrying out supporting activities and establishing policy standards;

Help librarians in acquiring relevant knowledge;

Promote the Sustainable Development Goals relevant to libraries and librarians in the local community while considering the needs of the recipient country;

Combine support in hardware and software in library cooperation.

Second Delphi survey

The second Delphi survey aimed to find out what measures, in the participants’ opinions, are effective in strengthening the MIL education competency of librarians in LMICs. The basic statistics of the responses are shown in Table 8.

Table 8.

Statistics of the responses to the questions of the second Delphi survey.

	Very unimportant (%)	Unimportant (%)	Neither unimportant nor important (%)	Important (%)	Very important (%)	M	SD	n
1. Methods for strengthening MIL education competency of librarians dispatched to LMICs
Learning community (e.g. best practices and information sharing)	–	–	14.3	14.3	71.4	4.57	0.73	7
Small group discussion	–	14.3	14.3	14.3	57.1	4.14	1.12	7
Brainstorming	14.3	–	14.3	28.6	42.9	3.86	1.36	7
On-site job training	–	–	–	12.5	87.5	4.88	0.33	8
Related professional education (e.g. seminar, conference)	–	–	–	75.0	25.0	4.25	0.43	8
Mentoring	–	–	12.5	25.0	62.5	4.50	0.71	8
Field training of MIL education experts	–	–	–	25.0	75.0	4.75	0.43	8
Networking through online meetings	–	12.5	12.5	12.5	62.5	4.25	1.09	8
Practice and observation of expert-led MIL classes	–	–	–	37.5	62.5	4.63	0.48	8
Online training to acquire theoretical knowledge	–	–	87.5	–	12.5	3.25	0.66	8
MIL (competency) training provided by relevant international organizations (e.g. UNESCO, IFLA)	–	–	37.5	50.0	12.5	3.75	0.66	8
Online job training	–	14.3	42.9	42.9	–	3.29	0.70	7
Online training of experts in MIL education	–	–	37.5	50.0	12.5	3.75	0.66	8
Online networking	–	12.5	12.5	62.5	12.5	3.75	0.83	8
2-1. Qualifications and abilities for undertaking MIL training
Relevant work experience over a certain period of time	–	12.5	12.5	37.5	37.5	4.00	1.00	8
Service experience over a certain period of time	12.5	12.5	25.0	12.5	37.5	3.50	1.41	8
Experience in providing MIL education and training to users	–	–	–	25.0	75.0	4.75	0.43	8
Ability to understand a curriculum and teach with an accurate curriculum	–	–	12.5	25.0	62.5	4.50	0.71	8
Foreign language skills	–	–	12.5	62.5	25.0	4.13	0.60	8
Understanding of local culture	–	–	12.5	50.0	37.5	4.25	0.66	8
Motivation	–	–	62.5	12.5	25.0	3.63	0.86	8
Communication and cooperation capabilities	–	–	25.0	37.5	37.5	4.13	0.78	8
2-2. MIL education methods
MIL education using portable devices	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
MIL education using a computer	–	12.5	12.5	37.5	37.5	4.00	1.00	8
MIL education using lectures and training materials	–	–	25.0	37.5	37.5	4.13	0.78	8
MIL education using media such as videos and films	–	–	37.5	37.5	25.0	3.88	0.78	8
Education through materials produced through research and collaboration by librarians	–	–	–	37.5	62.5	4.63	0.48	8
One-time courses for sparking interest	–	37.5	37.5	25.0	–	2.88	0.78	8
A regular programme in the library where activities change every time conducted	–	–	–	50.0	50.0	4.50	0.50	8
A regular programme that repeats the same activities every few months	–	–	–	50.0	50.0	4.50	0.50	8
Cooperation with educational institutions such as schools	–	–	–	62.5	37.5	4.38	0.48	8
Cooperation with external organizations such as local governments	–	–	25.0	62.5	12.5	3.88	0.60	8
Online team teaching by dispatched librarians and local librarians to foster global citizenship and digital citizenship together	–	–	–	50.0	50.0	4.50	0.50	8
Librarians who have MIL competency directly educate users	–	–	–	12.5	87.5	4.88	0.33	8
Private volunteers are used in the curriculum to support learning	–	25.0	12.5	50.0	12.5	3.50	1.00	8
Offline course that maximizes the educational effect and forms a network between users	–	12.5	12.5	75.0	–	3.63	0.70	8
Learner self-directed learning methods (e.g. computer simulations, role-playing, games)	–	–	25.0	37.5	37.5	4.13	0.78	8
Case study, small group discussion, brainstorming, etc.	–	–	37.5	25.0	37.5	4.00	0.87	8
Demonstrating MIL programmes and equipment	–	–	12.5	75.0	12.5	4.00	0.50	8
After learning the theory to understand and analyse the media (the media’s positive and negative functions, fake news, etc.), conduct hands-on practice in using media and creating media content	–	–	12.5	12.5	75.0	4.63	0.70	8
2-3. Training time needed for dispatched librarians to understand and practise MIL education	< 5 hours (%)		5–10 hours (%)		10–15 hours (%)		> 15 hours (%)
	–		12.5		–		87.5
3-1. Measures to help conduct MIL activities
Direct personnel dispatch	–	–	–	12.5	87.5	4.88	0.33	8
Direct physical support such as media information devices and equipment	–	–	37.5	25.0	37.5	4.00	0.87	8
Invite local librarians to Korea for field training	–	14.3	14.3	28.6	42.9	4.00	1.07	8
Go to a recipient country to conduct MIL education activities that are considered effective in the donor country	–	–	25.0	37.5	37.5	4.13	0.78	8
Link with experts on MIL education	–	–	–	75.0	25.0	4.25	0.43	8
Connect with experts who can guide on media information device use programmes	–	–	25.0	50.0	25.0	4.00	0.71	8
Develop, share and exchange MIL educational activities, research materials and teaching materials	–	–	12.5	12.5	75.0	4.63	0.70	8
By establishing an open library system, load various online training materials to cultivate MIL competency	–	–	37.5	37.5	25.0	3.88	0.78	8
Cooperate in the development of MIL textbooks or curriculum requested by the recipient country or the recipient institution	–	–	–	50.0	50.0	4.50	0.50	8
Cooperation in the promotion of libraries in LMICs	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
Translate MIL textbooks together	–	12.5	12.5	37.5	37.5	4.00	1.00	8
Online seminars	–	–	25.0	62.5	12.5	3.88	0.60	8
Reading discussions, literature research and joint programmes linking the libraries of the recipient country and the donor country	–	–	37.5	37.5	25.0	3.88	0.78	8
Joint classes	–	–	12.5	62.5	25.0	4.13	0.60	8
3-2. Reasons why literacy education through libraries in LMICs is important
To improve the overall quality of life of people in LMICs by acquiring basic literacy skills	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
To improve basic literacy skills, a prerequisite for MIL education	–	12.5	12.5	25.0	50.0	4.13	1.05	8
In the future, various forms of media and information analysis, evaluation and utilization ability will become more important	–	–	–	37.5	62.5	4.63	0.48	8
To protect against social and personal dysfunction caused by the rapid development in the information environment and technology	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
To develop the capacity to evaluate the reliability of information	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
To participate in social activities effectively	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
To develop the ability to use media tools effectively	–	12.5	–	50.0	37.5	4.13	0.93	8
To help the public use information efficiently	–	–	–	71.4	28.6	4.29	0.45	7
Because libraries are effective in accessing and learning MIL in the context of LMICs	–	12.5	12.5	50.0	25.0	3.88	0.93	8
4. Measures needed for implementation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
Help libraries and librarians have a clear understanding of the concept of ESD	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
Clearly identify and define the role of libraries in ESD	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
Analyse the current ESD activities of the library from a critical and analytical perspective and plan future activities	–	–	12.5	12.5	75.0	4.63	0.70	8
Research on the ESD development plan of libraries	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
Dissemination of materials for systematic education	–	12.5	–	25.0	62.5	4.38	0.99	8
Training and exploration of teaching methods	–	12.5	12.5	50.0	25.0	3.88	0.93	8
Participate directly as an instructor in education conducted in the library	–	–	–	25.0	75.0	4.75	0.43	8
To keep pace with changing technology and help libraries and librarians develop MIL skills	–	–	–	25.0	75.0	4.75	0.43	8
Participate directly in MIL education as an instructor and publish related educational materials	–	–	12.5	50.0	37.5	4.25	0.66	8
Constantly update the library and information utilization platform	–	12.5	–	50.0	37.5	4.13	0.93	8
Propose the library achievement standards etc. necessary to reach the goals of ESD to relevant national organizations	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
Include items related to the improvement of citizens’ MIL competency in the library’s goals and performance standards and the job evaluation indicators of librarians	–	–	12.5	37.5	50.0	4.38	0.70	8
Promote policies to make libraries and librarians accountable for improving citizens’ MIL	–	–	–	62.5	37.5	4.38	0.48	8
Make efforts to designate ‘library’ as the institution and ‘librarians’ as the people responsible for improving MIL competency in the Library Act or the MIL Act	–	–	12.5	50.0	37.5	4.25	0.66	8
Libraries and librarians from recipient countries and donor countries work together to establish policy standards for ESD for libraries	–	12.5	–	37.5	50.0	4.25	0.97	8
The library prepares support measures for ESD activities and proposes activities to other institutions or groups	–	–	–	57.1	42.9	4.43	0.49	7
Work closely with the community when planning library MIL activities	–	12.5	12.5	37.5	37.5	4.00	1.00	8
Continuously and visibly expose libraries’ ESD activities to the outside world	–	12.5	12.5	25.0	50.0	4.13	1.05	8
Have a voice in national and international gatherings related to ESD	–	–	14.3	28.6	57.1	4.43	0.73	7

Note: % = proportion of respondents who chose the item (– = indicates no respondents chose that item); n = number of respondents who answered the question; shaded rows = questions that the respondents did not have a consensus on. The means and standard deviations were calculated from the scores for the items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very unimportant to 5 = very important).

One of the respondents was an outlier in all the question groups (the number of questions that were responded to with scores outside the range of mean ± standard deviation was: Group 1: 7, Group 2-1: 5, Group 2-2: 10, Group 3-1: 9, Group 3-2: 5, Group 4: 11). The respondent was contacted again with the information that their answers in the second Delphi survey were mostly in disagreement with the others. They were given the approximate averages of all the Likert questions in the second Delphi survey and asked if they would like to change their answers. They then provided new answers to some of the questions, which aligned well with those of the other respondents.

By synthesizing the results of the second Delphi survey and the outlier’s revised answers, the following measures were considered important or very important by all or the overwhelming majority of the respondents:

1. Methods for strengthening MIL education competency of librarians dispatched to LMICs:

Learning community (e.g. best practices and information sharing)

Small group discussion

Brainstorming

On-site job training

Related professional education (e.g. seminar, conference)

Mentoring

Field training of MIL education experts

Networking through online meetings

Practice and observation of expert-led MIL classes

Online training to acquire theoretical knowledge

Online networking

2-1. Qualifications and abilities for undertaking MIL training

Relevant work experience over a certain period of time

Experience in providing MIL education and training to users

Ability to understand a curriculum and teach with an accurate curriculum

Foreign language skills

Understanding of local culture

Motivation

Communication and cooperation capabilities

2-2. MIL education methods

MIL using portable devices

MIL education using a computer

MIL education using lectures and training materials

Education through materials produced through research and collaboration by librarians

A regular programme in the library where activities change every time conducted

A regular programme that repeats the same activities every few months

Cooperation with educational institutions such as schools

Cooperation with external organizations such as local governments

Online team teaching by dispatched librarians and local librarians to foster global citizenship and digital citizenship together

Librarians who have MIL competency directly educate users

Offline course that maximizes the educational effect and forms a network between users

Learner self-directed learning methods (e.g. computer simulations, role-playing, games)

Demonstrating MIL programmes and equipment

After learning the theory to understand and analyse the media (the media’s positive and negative functions, fake news, etc.), conduct hands-on practice in using media and creating media content

2-3. Training time needed for dispatched librarians to understand and practise MIL education is more than 15 hours

3-1. Measures to help conduct MIL activities

Direct personnel dispatch

Go to a recipient country to conduct MIL education activities that are considered effective in the donor country

Link with experts on MIL education

Connect with experts who can guide media information device use programmes

Develop, share and exchange MIL educational activities, research materials and teaching materials

Cooperate in the development of MIL textbooks or curriculum requested by the recipient country or the recipient institution

Cooperation in the promotion of libraries in LMICs

Translate MIL textbooks together

Online seminars

Joint classes

3-2. Reasons why literacy education through libraries in LMICs is important

To improve the overall quality of life of people in LMICs by acquiring basic literacy skills

To improve basic literacy skills, a prerequisite for MIL education

In the future, various forms of media and information analysis, evaluation and utilization ability will become more important

To protect against social and personal dysfunction caused by the rapid development in the information environment and technology

To develop the capacity to evaluate the reliability of information

To participate in social activities effectively

To develop the ability to use media tools effectively

To help the public use information efficiently

Because libraries are effective in accessing and learning MIL in the context of LMICs

4. Measures needed for implementation of ESD

Help libraries and librarians to have a clear understanding of the concept of ESD

Clearly identify and define the role of libraries in ESD

Analyse the current ESD activities of the library from a critical and analytical perspective and plan future activities

Research on the ESD development plan of libraries

Dissemination of materials for systematic education

Training and exploration of teaching methods

Participate directly as an instructor in education conducted in the library

To keep pace with changing technology and help libraries and librarians to develop MIL skills

Participate directly in MIL education as an instructor and publish related educational materials

Constantly update the library and information utilization platform

Propose library the achievement standards etc. necessary to reach the goals of ESD to relevant national organizations

Include items related to the improvement of citizens’ MIL competency in the library’s goals and performance standards and the job evaluation indicators of librarians

Promote policies to make libraries and librarians accountable for improving citizens’ MIL

Make efforts to designate ‘library’ as the institution and ‘librarians’ as the people responsible for improving MIL competency in the Library Act or the MIL Act

Libraries and librarians from recipient countries and donor countries work together to establish policy standards for ESD education for libraries

The library prepares support measures for ESD activities and proposes activities to other institutions or groups

Work closely with the community when planning library MIL activities

Continuously and visibly expose libraries’ ESD activities to the outside world

Have a voice in national and international gatherings related to ESD

Discussion

Based on the discussions with experienced librarians who had been dispatched to the field, the difficulties in supporting MIL capacity-building and sustainable education in libraries can be summarized into four broad and interlinked categories.

First, there is a shortage of professional personnel to carry out library ODA projects. The participation of competent librarians is important for successful informal educational activities through libraries. However, there are few librarians with expertise across multiple disciplines such as library and information science, international cooperation and education. In addition, the effective management of dispatched librarians will be necessary for the successful implementation of library ODA projects in the future.

The second category involves the limited financial resources. Although the exact budget allocated by the South Korean government to library ODA is unclear, it is certainly not significant. The recipient countries cannot provide substantial input into library ODA projects either. Therefore, the volunteer librarians are often motivated by their passion for library ODA rather than social and material rewards. This approach is unsustainable in the long run. The lack of financial resources also impedes the development of tailor-made training in MIL for volunteer librarians, which exacerbates the personnel shortage elaborated in the previous paragraph. Under such circumstances, it is unrealistic for library professionals to pursue a career in library ODA.

The third issue is the lack of understanding of public development assistance and global citizenship in the library field. Many countries have become multicultural because of migration, but the international cooperation and multicultural services of many libraries do not go beyond the rudimentary level of providing a small number of materials in foreign languages. In the field of international cooperation, an ODA model that cooperates with migrants from recipient countries residing in the donor country is being studied. A study on a model of development assistance through libraries that includes migrants and helps migrants to settle in their destination country is also needed.

Finally, there is a lack of acknowledgement of the importance of MIL and libraries’ role in building MIL competencies. The algorithms of social media encourage users to consume information without distinguishing between high-quality and poor-quality content, or even facts and lies. This makes users so addicted to eye-catching information that whether the information is true does not matter to them anymore, leading to a toxic media environment. Fostering media users’ MIL competencies can help in reversing this trend, but the attention from public and private sectors on this issue has not been enough. In addition, libraries have long been considered non-formal educational institutions, as well as spaces where citizens can enjoy culture and access to information. Their role in answering new challenges such as MIL competency development is often overlooked. To make consistent progress in this regard in the future, it is necessary to collect related materials and generate research results within the library community.

Corresponding to these challenges, the suggestions on the qualifications that librarians should possess to contribute to MIL education (Research Question 1) and ways to effectively conduct MIL education in LMICs (Research Question 2) derived from the Delphi surveys are as follows.

First, the experts suggested that more studies on the role of libraries and librarians in MIL education are needed, and corresponding teaching methods and textbooks should be developed to equip volunteer librarians with the appropriate knowledge and skills. This is in accordance with the fact that among the functions that dispatched librarians perform in libraries in LMICs, the promotion of MIL, provision of information access and support for non-formal learning by users are tasks frequently requested by libraries. Due to the nature of MIL, the scope is vast and various media can be used, so it is necessary to develop teaching methods and textbooks that allow librarians to learn and practise according to their own circumstances and experiences. Several MIL education experts interviewed in this study commented that the qualitative and quantitative maturity of existing MIL teaching methods does not keep up with the needs of MIL education. As a result, many of the MIL experts responded that they were designing lessons through self-directed learning or field experience.

Diverse types of training should be provided in a consistent and continuous manner. The experts said that MIL competency does not happen overnight. In addition, they emphasized that librarians should study in groups rather than alone, and recommended field education because it is highly effective and can also stimulate networking among learners. When on-site training is difficult, they suggested that courses that can be adequately supplemented with online training with less constraints on time and space should be developed. In addition, hands-on education experience was considered by the experts as a key element in MIL education. To this end, they expressed that it would be ideal if they were given the opportunity to build relevant real-world skills in various subjects.

In addition, the experts responded that thorough knowledge of the natural and social environment of LMICs and supporting organizations, the cultural environment, conditions and customs of recipient organizations, and the MIL environment is important for effective education. Moreover, wide-ranging public relations were found to be important for sustainable education support in the future, and the need to cooperate with various institutions was highlighted.

Although public development assistance through libraries has many limitations, it can be expected to serve as an excellent window to breathe new life into the library world. This is because the educational role of libraries is gradually increasing due to paradigm shifts in education and development cooperation, and there is a huge demand for libraries to participate in international development cooperation.

There are a few other points mentioned by the experts that may lead to better MIL education. The number of librarian teachers who are interested in MIL education is increasing. Performing different tasks is one way for librarians dispatched from various educational institutions to find MIL education models that are suitable for library ODA. A community of practice can be established for librarians who have some understanding of library and MIL education, and they can participate in educational activities to exchange information on sustainable education through libraries. It can organize discussion through a dedicated online forum, an annual gathering or a periodical, for example. Lastly, if the librarian volunteers dispatched to a recipient country and people from that country who have migrated to Korea can cooperate organically, library ODA can find a new direction.

Although some studies specifically on library ODA were published over 25 years ago (Fukuda, 1998; Tabachnick, 1989), many of their conclusions can still be applied to South Korean library ODA today and are in accordance with the survey participants’ opinions, such as the importance of local contexts, training for volunteer librarians and the lack of financial resources.

Some of the previous research on education ODA may shed light on the implications of the findings of this study. Heyneman and Lee (2016) list ‘corruption, overdependence on aid, lack of institution-building and faddish ideologies’ as major problems in education ODA and argue for a results-based, rather than project-based, approach for more efficiency and impact. Specifically for South Korea, the transferability of successful experiences in educational development to LMICs should not be assumed, and its educational ODA has been focusing on vocational education and training, which does not meet LMICs’ need for the provision of basic education (Chung, 2014). Accordingly, Kim (2016) analysed 20 years of data on South Korean ODA from around 136 countries and found that South Korean ODA was predominantly guided by the donor’s economic and political strategies rather than the recipients’ needs.

Limitations

This study synthesized the opinions of people with diverse backgrounds, including public officials in charge of library and education policies, activists, MIL education experts, researchers and field experts who worked in libraries in LMICs. However, it is possible that the voices of librarians and users in LMICs were not fully reflected due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Particularly, a limitation is that it was not possible to interview dispatched librarians who were in LMICs at the time of the study. Instead, interviews were conducted with people who had been dispatched to LMICs in the past.

Another weakness in this research is that it studies LMICs in general, instead of focusing on a specific country. Although the requirements and needs of libraries in every country should be different, there are not enough examples of libraries in LMICs to build a good country case study. Because the concept of MIL education is relatively new, there are not many examples of MIL education activities even in the libraries of donor countries. Future research is needed to fill these gaps.

Conclusion and ways forward

This study has focused on libraries’ roles in MIL education. The opinions of South Korean experts were solicited on how to build MIL education competencies for volunteer librarians and how to improve MIL education in LMICs.

The challenges for South Korean library ODA projects can be summarized in four main categories. First, there is a shortage of qualified professionals with expertise spanning library science, international cooperation and education. Second, the financial resources allocated to library ODA are highly limited, making it challenging to attract and nurture talent in this field. Third, mass migration has made many countries more multicultural, but the ideas of public development assistance and global citizenship have not been popularized among libraries, so they cannot provide adequate multicultural services. There is a need to explore ODA models that involve migrants from recipient countries residing in donor countries. Lastly, the importance of MIL and libraries’ role in building MIL competencies is often underappreciated.

The surveys of the experts highlighted several key consensus points. First, there is a great need for MIL studies for librarians to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills, alongside the development of novel teaching methods and textbooks that cater to the diverse nature of MIL. Continuous and group-based training, including field education and online courses, was recommended for building MIL competency. Additionally, the experts stressed the importance of understanding the local environment, culture and recipient organizations, as well as effective collaboration with various institutions. Lastly, the survey results suggest that collaboration between librarian volunteers from donor countries and migrants from recipient countries could open new directions for library ODA.

Libraries can carry out functions in education, culture and community-building, and thus can be entry points or hubs for basic education and cultural activities. Investing in libraries and MIL education in LMICs can sustainably improve local populations’ access to basic education and prepare them to actively engage in modern society.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

In addition to the survey participants, the author is especially grateful to Deok-Ju Lee, who helped with finding the individuals needed for this research. The author would also like to extend gratitude to Dr Bin Liu, who reviewed the manuscript and provided insightful comments.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Suhyoung Son

Supplementary materials

The following supplementary materials are available from the author on request: the complete questionnaires for the Delphi surveys; a detailed narrative of the first Delphi survey, including direct quotes from the participants; and the detailed individual responses to the second Delphi survey.

Note

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