Industrial schools were the first state-funded institutions for the protection of children. The debates surrounding their establishment and enlargement illuminate a unique relationship between the state, the family, and the child. From the 1850s and 1860s when the state first began to grapple with the notion of intervening in family privacy, to the 1870s and 1880s when the concept and boundaries of childhood were affirmed, the protection of children from want and neglect was the motivation behind the institutions. Industrial schools were the state's solution to the care of children until fin-de-siècle England saw their popularity wane. Twentieth-century child policy has subsequently promoted family, rather than child, protection.
J. Hurt, "Reformatory and Industrial Schools before 1933,"History of Education13 (1984): 45-58.
4.
S. Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth 1889-1939 (Oxford, 1981), 209-39.
5.
Hurt, "Reformatory and Industrial Schools," 45-58.
6.
Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels, 211.
7.
M. Cale, ```Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime': Reformatory and Industrial Schools for Girls c. 1854-1900." Unpublished D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1993), 17.
8.
L. Mahood and B. Littlewood, "The `Vicious' Girl and the `Street-Corner' Boy" Journal of the History of Sexuality (1994): 549-78.
9.
M. Cale, "Girls and the Perception of Sexual Danger in the Victorian Reformatory System," History78 ( 1993): 201-17.
10.
M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality: Volume 1-The Will to Knowledge ( London, 1979), 97.
11.
J. Donzelot, The Policing of Families (New York, 1979), 551.
12.
Mahood and Littlewood, "The `Vicious Girl,'" 551.
13.
Cale, " Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime," 15.
14.
Cale, " Girls and the Perception of Sexual Danger," 201-17; Cale, "Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime."
15.
Cale, " Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime," 323.
16.
M. May , "Innocence and Experience: The Evolution of the Concept of Juvenile Delinquency in the mid 19th Century," Victorian Studies (1973): 28.
17.
Ibid., 29.
18.
G. Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England 1870-1908 (Stanford , 1982).
19.
Shore, Artful Dodgers, 20.
20.
Ibid., 6.
21.
The principle of Doli Incapax, which means being "incapable of being sorry" because the guilt of the act is not understood.
22.
Shore, Artful Dodgers, 8-9.
23.
Mary Carpenter quoted in M. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England 1830-1914 (Cambridge, 1990), 140.
24.
Shore, Artful Dodgers, 23.
25.
Carpenter, Reformatory Schools, vi.
26.
Ibid., 2.
27.
Ibid., 74.
28.
Ibid., 77.
29.
Ibid., 83.
30.
Ibid., 210.
31.
Ibid., 211-2.
32.
Sir John Pakington: Commons Hansard, 4 March 1857, Industrial Schools Bill, c. 1868.
33.
Shore, Artful Dodgers, 4.
34.
Anon, Industrial Schools; The Best Means for Decreasing Juvenile Crime (London, 1853), 32.
35.
Ibid., 101.
36.
J. Adshead, On Juvenile Criminals (Manchester, 1856 ), 4.
37.
Ibid., 7.
38.
Ibid., 8.
39.
Sir Stafford Northcote: Commons Hansard, 10 February 1857, Industrial Schools Bill, First Reading, c. 474-6.
40.
Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 135, 147.
41.
Commons Hansard, 11 May 1857, Industrial Schools Bill, Second Reading, c. 184-6.
42.
Ibid., c. 189-90.
43.
Commons Hansard, 17 June 1857, Industrial Schools Committee, c. 1954.
44.
Ibid., c. 1945.
45.
Marquess of Blandford, Ibid., c. 1946.
46.
Commons Hansard, 4 March 1857, Industrial Schools Bill, c. 1860.
47.
J.S. Mill, On Liberty (London, 1985 ( 1857)), 176.
48.
Mr. E. Ball: Commons Hansard, 8 June 1857, Industrial Schools Committee, c. 1141.
49.
Mr. Spoone: Ibid, c. 1863-4.
50.
(20 and 21 Vict. c. 48).
51.
Ibid., s. III and IV.
52.
Ibid., s. V.
53.
Ibid., s. VI.
54.
Ibid., s. VII.
55.
Ibid., s. XXI.
56.
Ibid., s. XII, XIII, and XIV.
57.
Hurt, " Reformatory and Industrial Schools," 51.
58.
(20 and 21 Vict. c. 48) s. IX.
59.
Commons Hansard, 8 June 1857, Industrial Schools Committee, c. 1140.
60.
(20 and 21 Vict. c. 48) s. XV and XVI.
61.
(24 and 25 Vict. c. 113).
62.
Ibid., s. 9.
63.
Mr. Henley: Commons Hansard, 6 June 1861, Industrial Schools Bill Committee, c. 692-3.
64.
Sir George Lewis, Ibid, c. 693.
65.
Sir George Lewis : Commons Hansard, 5 July 1861, Industrial Schools Bill Committee, c. 369.
66.
(28 and 29 Vict. c. 118) s. 41.
67.
Ibid., s. 35, 37, and 39.
68.
Ibid., s. 14.
69.
Ibid., s. 11.
70.
Ibid., s. 27.
71.
Ibid., s. 28.
72.
Mr. Bagwell: Commons Hansard, 8 June 1857, Industrial Schools Committee, c. 1141.
73.
The Times, 7 December 1866, 6 Column F.
74.
Cale, " Girls and the Perception of Sexual Danger," 201-17; Cale, "Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime"; Mahood and Littlewood, "The `Vicious' Girl," 549-78; L. Mahood and B. Littlewood, "Prostitutes, Magdalens and Wayward Girls: Dangerous Sexualities of Working Class Women in Victorian Scotland," Gender and History3 (1991): 160-75.
75.
D. Gorham, "`Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon' Re-Examined: Child Prostitution and the Idea of Childhood in Late-Victorian England," Victorian Studies21 (1978): 365.
76.
(34 and 35 Vict. c. 112).
77.
Quoted in The Times, 19 July 1871, 6 c. B.
78.
(34 and 35 Vict. c. 112) s. 14.
79.
Commons Hansard, 14 April 1875, Offences Against the Person Bill Second Reading, c. 918.
80.
E. Hopkins, Preventative Work or the Care of our Girls (London, 1881), 11.
81.
Ibid., 7.
82.
Ibid., 18.
83.
The Times, 8 May 1869, 6 c. A.
84.
Colonel Alexander: Commons Hansard, 20 July 1880, Industrial Schools Act 1866 Amendment Bill c. 995-6.
85.
The Times, 8 July 1880, 6 c. A.
86.
(43 and 44 Vict. c. 15).
87.
Ibid., s. 1.
88.
E. Hopkins, Drawn unto Death, A Plea for the Children coming under the Industrial Schools Act Amendment Act 1880 (London, 1884 ), 19.
89.
Quoted in Cale, "Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime," 52.
90.
Hopkins, Drawn unto Death , 14.
91.
Behlmer, G., Friends of the Family: The English Home and its Guardians, 1850-1940, (Stanford, 1998), 280-2.
92.
Stead, The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon (London, 1885), 5 c. C.
93.
Ibid., 5 c. A.
94.
Ibid.
95.
Hopkins, Preventative Work , 13.
96.
Hopkins, Drawn unto Death , 16.
97.
Hopkins quoted in S. Morgan, A Passion for Purity: Ellice Hopkins and the Politics of Gender in the Late-Victorian Church (Bristol , 1999), 105.
98.
Reformatory and Refuge Union Journal (1863), 95.
99.
An incident involving the exposure of a male brothel with male child prostitutes in 1889.
100.
Quoted in J. Weeks, Against Nature: Essays on History, Sexuality and Identity (London, 1991), 59.
101.
Reformatory and Refuge Union Journal (1873), Preface.
102.
"That which was lost" in RRUJ ( 1876), 153.
103.
"That which was lost" in RRUJ ( 1880), 437.
104.
"That which was lost" in RRUJ ( 1892), 585.
105.
Ibid., 131.
106.
"That which was lost" in RRUJ ( 1887), 402.
107.
S. Mitchell, The New Girl (New York, 1995), 6.
108.
(52 and 53 Vict. c. 44).
109.
Ibid., s. 1.
110.
Letter to the Editor by F. H. N. Glossop , The Times, 1 September 1885, 5 c. A.
111.
The Times, 9 September 1885, 7 c. D.
112.
The Times, 14 September 1885, 4 c. F.
113.
Cale, " Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime," 305.
114.
The Times, 5 September 1883, 9 c. C-D.
115.
RRUJ (1880).
116.
Cale, " Saved from a Life of Vice and Crime," 300.
117.
The Times, 7 October 1894, 14 c. C.
118.
The Times, 25 November 1884, 3 C-E.
119.
The Times, 5 September 1883, c. C-D.
120.
(54 and 55 Vict. c. 3) s. 3.
121.
(54 and 55 Vict. c. 23) s. 1.
122.
Lord Leigh: Lords Hansard, 9 July 1894, Industrial Schools Bill Second Reading, c. 1178-9.
123.
Lord Rookwood: Ibid, c. 1180.
124.
(57 and 58 Vict. c. 33) s. 1.
125.
The 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts extended the vote to all male adult householders and men who rented unfurnished lodgings to the value of £10 a year.
126.
Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 198-202.
127.
Ibid., 287.
128.
Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 83.
129.
Ibid., 90.
130.
Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 291.
131.
Ibid., 338-9.
132.
Behlmer, Child Abuse.
133.
Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 241-2.
134.
Emphasis mine.
135.
The Times, 25 December 1894, 8 c. A.
136.
Ibid.
137.
Ibid., 102.
138.
(57 and 58 Vict. c. 33).
139.
The Times, 3 May 1890, 7 c. F.
140.
The Times, 6 October 1893, 7 c. B-C.
141.
Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 286.
142.
RRUJ (1891), 36.
143.
The Times, 21 November 1896, 11 c. D.
144.
H. Hendrick, Child Welfare in England 1872-1989 (London, 1994), 250-1.
