Why Women Get Divorced in Bangladesh: Exploring Individualism and Other Factors

Abstract

Globally, marriage breakup or divorce has become a significant issue, and Bangladesh is no exception. The divorce rate among urban women has dramatically increased in Bangladesh, particularly in Dhaka City. This study aims to uncover the factors contributing to the rising divorce rate among women in Dhaka. Utilizing desk-based research and expert interviews, it critically examines the causes of marriage breakdown. The study argues that industrialization, women's empowerment, and feminist movements have fostered a rise in individualism among women in Dhaka, making them more educated and empowered compared to those in other Bangladeshi cities. This individualism serves as a deterrent against physical and mental abuse, extramarital affairs, authoritarian attitudes, and other forms of discrimination traditionally faced by women. Women's sense of individualism also fosters intolerance toward unhappy marriages, allowing them to pursue independent lives due to their financial solvency. Additionally, the study identifies other factors negatively impacting divorce-seeking behavior, including drug addiction, marital dissatisfaction over infertility or impotence, extramarital affairs due to partner absence, and the influence of social media.

Keywords

divorce individualism feminism women empowerment industrialization

Introduction

Bangladesh is one of the countries where family bonding and happiness are significant, and this culture has been cultivated among the people of this country for decades. However, it is unfortunate that such a scenario has begun changing. Divorce rates have steadily grown over the past few years due to several causes. The number of divorce applications filed in the two city corporations of Dhaka is alarming, which heralded a new era of modernism. According to official statistics, the divorce rate increases daily in Dhaka city, and the ratio of women serving notices for the breakup is double that of men.¹ The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS)² reports that the national divorce application rate has climbed by an alarming 34% over the past 7 years. The BBS report also suggests that nearly 50,000 divorce applications were filed in Dhaka city in the past 6 years, one of which was submitted every hour. The year 2020 witnessed 6,345 divorce petitions in one of the two city corporations of Dhaka. The pattern suggests that 70 per cent of women sought a divorce. The year 2021 witnessed 14 per cent more divorce applications, of which 65 per cent were women seeking a divorce.³

It appears that a traditional Bangladeshi society is experiencing an increasing trend in marriage breakups. This article attempts to answer why this is happening. To understand the drivers of marriage breakups, Pothen⁴ surveyed 200 husbands and 200 wives in India and contended that divorce is caused by biological, psychological, and environmental variables (familial, economic, and social). She also identified several reasons for divorce in the Hindu community in India, including brutality, husbands’ extramarital affairs with other women, husbands’ failure to provide basic needs, and in-laws’ or relatives’ intervention in family matters. Pothen's argument was partially supported by Cano & O’Leary,⁵ who stated that a spouse's infidelity acts as a catalyst for divorce. Balakrishnan et al.⁶ presented a new argument regarding the natural environment, suggesting that women raised in urban regions have a higher separation rate than those raised in rural areas.

Guest⁷ Carmichael et al.,⁸ and Jones⁹ argue that increasing employment facilities and educational opportunities for women are significant factors in rising divorce rates globally. Agreeing with the argument about women's job opportunities, Smith¹⁰ contends that increased employment opportunities for women, advances in reproductive control technology, and postdivorce welfare facilities have contributed to higher divorce rates in Britain. Jesmin and Salway¹¹ present a similar argument to Smith, suggesting that marriage dissolution is more common in urban regions than in rural areas. They argue that greater female work involvement makes women more independent, ultimately increasing the chances of divorce.

Modernization and urbanization have not only impacted the West but have also affected the East, including Bangladesh, a developing country that is not immune to these trends. Alam¹² found that infertility and chronic illness contribute to divorces. Sultana,¹³ in her study of rural Bangladesh, identified patriarchal attitudes, a lack of gender awareness, gender biases in religious law and customs, inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws, and limited access to justice due to cost and the protracted nature of the legal process as fundamental issues causing divorce and polygamy. Akter and Begum¹⁴ indicated that extramarital relationships, verbal and physical abuse, financial struggles, desertion, in-law interference, dowry demands, personality disorders, criminal acts, and unemployment influence women's decisions to divorce. Ziha et al.¹⁵ added that extramarital affairs and increased mistrust lead to marriage dissolution. In another research found a striking trend where women choose to divorce as they receive significant financial settlements from their husbands.¹⁶ Although Dhaka city has faced high divorce rates, previous studies have not specifically addressed the underlying causes. This article is the first of its kind to investigate the drivers of increased divorce rates in Dhaka city.

Methodology

With the aim of investigating the causes of marriage breakups in Dhaka City, this study employs the expert interview method. This method was selected due to its ability to leverage the up-to-date knowledge of experts regarding specific phenomena. Additionally, issues pertaining to divorce as documented in daily newspapers were consulted to establish correlations with interview data. The research conducted in-depth interviews to gain a nuanced understanding of the phenomena, utilizing semistructured and open-ended interview questions. A total of twenty interviews were conducted, including six female participants, who were selected based on their expertise in research, teaching, and legal matters related to divorce and family issues. The decision to include twenty interviewees aligns with research principles, as confirmed by Latham, who suggests that twelve participants are sufficient for a homogeneous group (for details see Mostofa¹⁷). Prior approval was obtained from the University of Dhaka to conduct this research.

Theorizing Marriage Breakup

Individualism—defined as “a social pattern that consists of loosely linked individuals who view themselves as independent of collectives” (2)¹⁸—is one of the most influential “global values.”¹⁹ It prioritizes the rights and liberties of individuals over those of groups or communities, advocating that every individual has inherent value and should be left to prosper independently. Society should not interfere with or regulate individuals’ personal lives. Individualism promotes personal autonomy, self-expression, and self-reliance, which can lead to greater wellbeing, self-esteem, and satisfaction. It also fosters creativity, innovation, and progress by encouraging independent thinking and goal pursuit.²⁰ According to Bellah et al.,²¹ American individualism is rooted in principles of self-reliance, independence, and separation from family, religion, and community. Moreover, people in individualistic cultures often have a strong sense of self-efficacy.²²

Modernization theories suggest that as societies become more industrialized and urbanized, traditional social structures and values—such as family, community, and religious institutions—decline, leading to a greater emphasis on individual autonomy and self-expression.²³ In economically developed societies, the reduced need to rely on groups for survival allows people to prioritize individual goals and personal freedom.²⁴ Urban environments, in particular, are thought to promote individualism.^25,²⁶ Correlational studies across multiple countries^27,²⁸ and observations of single communities before and after economic development²⁹ support the claim that more developed and urbanized societies are more individualistic. Putnam³⁰ suggests that technology and the internet have furthered individual empowerment and self-determination by providing access to information and global connections.

While modernization and industrialization create conditions conducive to individualism, the women's empowerment movement has also fostered individualism among women. Women's empowerment involves women organizing themselves to strengthen their self-reliance, assert their autonomous rights, and manage resources to confront and remove their subordination.³¹ Through globalization, women can find work in various industries, services, and export processing zones, making them more financially independent.^32–³⁴ A study by researchers at the University of California found that as women gain more access to education and employment, they are more likely to adopt individualistic values and beliefs. The study also found that highly educated and employed women were more likely to hold feminist attitudes and beliefs, often associated with individualism.³⁵ Another study from the University of Missouri-Columbia revealed a significant increase in individualistic attitudes and values among women, attributed to increased access to education and employment opportunities and cultural shifts such as the rise of feminist movements.³⁶

Industrialization, modernization, education, job opportunities, women empowerment, and the feminist movement have influenced people's behavior, particularly among women, leading to the rise of individualism. However, individualism has also impacted traditional value systems, including marriage. Individualistic approaches urge people to pursue personal achievement, creating competition between individuals.³⁷ These systems can result in high social mobility, leading to increased social anxiety.³⁸ The focus on personal achievements can strain interpersonal relationships.³⁹ Lester⁴⁰ suggests that divorce rates are higher in nations with higher individualism scores.

The individualism thesis argues that a focus on personal happiness and self-fulfillment makes individuals more likely to end relationships that do not meet their needs or expectations.⁴¹ This can lead to less satisfaction in relationships and a higher likelihood of seeking new partners or ending relationships.⁴² It can also foster a sense of entitlement and self-importance, making individuals view relationships as disposable when they do not meet expectations.⁴³ Giddens⁴⁴ notes that individualistic culture promotes individual choice and autonomy, leading to individuals feeling less constrained by social norms and expectations. This makes them more comfortable ending unsatisfying relationships and pursuing new ones.⁴⁵ Moreover, individualistic culture may foster a sense of entitlement, leading individuals to prioritize their happiness without regard for their partner's needs, contributing to relationship dissatisfaction and a greater likelihood of divorce.^46,⁴⁷

Using insights from the theory of individualism, this article argues that individualism has been a key factor in the rise of marriage breakups in Bangladesh. The increased divorce rate is inextricably linked to personal happiness, the promotion of individual choice and autonomy, and a sense of entitlement. Industrialization, modernization, and globalization have created job and education opportunities for women. The growth of industry has led to a demand for workers, enabling women to leave their homes and become financially independent. They have pursued higher education and acquired new skills, increasing their job market prospects. As women gained financial independence, they became more cautious about violence and their personal choices, seeking divorce if their marriage is not fulfilling or if they are subjected to abuse by their husbands.

Findings

The thematic analysis method has been adopted to present the data collected during fieldwork in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Industrialization, Women's Empowerment, and Individualism

Interviewee no. 11 astutely underscores the profound impact of industrialization on the development of individualism, particularly within the bustling metropolis of Dhaka, Bangladesh. As the nation's capital, Dhaka stands as a beacon of industrial progress, boasting a higher level of automation than any other city in the country. This technological advancement is palpably evident through the proliferation of large factories, governmental and nongovernmental offices, hospitals, and universities within its urban landscape. Consequently, denizens of Dhaka benefit from enhanced access to essential institutions, which significantly contributes to their overall education level and societal awareness. With ample educational and occupational opportunities available to both genders, the process of industrialization in Dhaka has indisputably nurtured the growth of individualistic tendencies within the city's populace (August 8, 2022).

The concept of “women's empowerment” encapsulates the pivotal notion of providing women with agency over crucial life decisions while affording them access to opportunities that enable the full realization of their potential.⁴⁸ Paradoxically, women's empowerment stands as one of the most pivotal factors contributing to divorce rates in Bangladesh and beyond. As articulated by interviewee no. 1, the surge in women's financial independence catalyzes divorce proceedings by imbuing them with a burgeoning sense of individualism. Contemporary trends elucidate that women are increasingly attaining parity in income with their male counterparts, if not surpassing them. This financial stability empowers women to no longer tolerate instances of domestic violence or gender inequality within their marriages (interviewee no. 1, July 17, 2022).

Moreover, interviewee no. 9 cogently observes that the burgeoning participation of women in higher education and professional sectors is a daily unfolding reality in our nation. This pivotal trend fosters the augmentation of women's empowerment within our societal fabric. As articulated by interviewee no. 9, the financial solvency and educational attainment of women have irrevocably transformed the dynamics of marital relationships. In scenarios where women attain financial independence and educational prowess, the traditional notions of mutual respect between spouses are often eroded, consequently heightening the likelihood of marital dissolution (August 2, 2022).

The correlation between education and women's empowerment, as delineated by Jahan et al.⁴⁹ is indeed compelling. Interviewee no. 5 perceptively points out that the burgeoning levels of female education serve as a primary catalyst for escalating divorce rates. Through education, women gain heightened awareness of their rights and assert themselves within familial and societal domains. Consequently, instances of discrimination within marital settings are met with vehement opposition, thereby amplifying the incidence of divorces (July 28, 2022). Echoing this sentiment, interviewee no. 8 underscores the pivotal role of education and empowerment in precipitating the surge in divorce rates.

In the past, women were bereft of educational opportunities, thereby rendering them unaware of their rights and legal prerogatives. However, the contemporary landscape paints a vastly different picture. Women today are increasingly educated and cognizant of their legal entitlements. Thus, when confronted with instances of injustice perpetrated by their spouses or in-laws, they assertively seek recourse through legal channels. In severe cases, dissolution of marriage becomes the inevitable recourse. (August 2, 2022).

The transformative impact of higher education on women's empowerment cannot be overstated. Access to tertiary education amplifies women's sense of independence, self-reliance, and self-assurance. This assertion is corroborated by Jones,⁵⁰ whose research aligns with the profound influence of education on women's empowerment. In essence, higher education serves as a catalyst for the fortification of women's inner strength and self-confidence, thereby engendering a paradigm shift in societal dynamics.

Infertility

According to the World Health Organization (WHO),⁵¹ infertility is defined as a condition affecting either the male or female reproductive system, characterized by the inability to achieve conception after 12 months or more of regular unprotected sexual relations. The World Infertility Survey has indicated that in South Asian countries, including Bangladesh, approximately 4% of couples struggle with infertility.⁵² Interviewee no. 6 underscores the widespread recognition of infertility as a significant contributor to marital discord and subsequent divorce (July 30, 2022). The inability to conceive can often lead husbands to lose interest in their marital relationships, thus rendering infertility a common cause for polygamy and divorce, particularly within traditional societies such as Bangladesh.⁵³ Furthermore, infertility transcends mere physiological implications, permeating emotional wellbeing, and personal relationships. However, it is crucial to note that infertility is not solely a concern exclusive to females; rather, it equally affects males, thereby bearing implications for marital stability. Interviewee no. 6 shares a poignant anecdote that exemplifies the multifaceted impact of infertility on marital dynamics:

A woman, cognizant of her husband's infertility, sought financial security for her future well-being, envisioning potential challenges in her old age without offspring. She proposed a monetary arrangement to secure her financial independence, which her husband vehemently opposed. Subsequently, feeling apprehensive about her future without children or financial stability, she opted for divorce, thus emphasizing the profound insecurities arising from infertility. (July 30, 2022)

Labor Migration and Marital Dissolution

A 2019 survey revealed that 11.5 million Bangladeshis are currently employed.⁵⁴ Interviewee no. 11 highlights migration as a significant factor contributing to marital dissolution in Bangladesh, attributing it to the physical and emotional distance it creates between spouses. The lack of fulfillment of basic needs, such as sexual intimacy, often leads to extramarital affairs, ultimately resulting in divorces (August 8, 2022). Pothen⁵⁵ underscores the importance of a healthy sexual relationship in maintaining marital happiness and emotional bonding between partners. In the context of Bangladesh, interviewee no. 11 described:

Bangladeshi migrants typically spend extended periods abroad, ranging from two to five years, with minimal opportunities for vacation. The relentless pursuit of financial stability often leads to prolonged separation from family, exacerbating marital strains. The modernization of societal norms has also heightened awareness of physical needs among women, contributing to an increase in extramarital relationships and subsequent divorces. (August 8, 2022)

Women, alongside men, migrate abroad in search of economic empowerment. However, their experiences often differ, with a significant proportion facing physical, mental, and sexual abuse. According to the Refugee and Migratory Movement Research Unit (RMMRU), 35% of female migrant workers endure physical abuse, while 52% experience mental abuse, and 11% suffer sexual abuse.⁵⁶ The Bangladesh Manpower, Employment, and Training Bureau (BMET) report that approximately 100,000 women migrants return home annually.⁵⁷

Interviewee no. 15, drawing from her experience working with persecuted women, emphasizes the challenges faced by female migrants, including societal rejection and accusations of involvement in prostitution. Such stigmatization often leads to divorces initiated by husbands who succumb to societal pressures (August 19, 2022). A 2021 report by Bangla News⁵⁸ highlights the neglect and mistreatment faced by returning women workers, with 17% subjected to unwelcome behavior at airports by family members. Moreover, 15% of returning women workers end up divorced, while 11% have their husbands leave them, with 28% reporting adverse effects on their marriages.

Patriarchal Family Structure

In Bangladesh, family and kinship are at the core of social life, with the family being perceived as the archetype of the nation. Interviewee no. 1 notes that

Family structure can sometimes be the cause of marriage dissolution. From a social perspective, many people in our country live in extended families, where other members, including in-laws, often criticize various aspects of their lives. This continuous interference in personal matters can make it challenging for women to thrive in such environments, leading them to seek divorce. (July 17, 2022)

Interviewee no. 7 highlights that third-party involvement, such as that of mothers and friends, can also contribute to marital discord and eventual divorce.

Efforts towards women's and children's rights have shed light on cases where the bride's family, especially the mother, plays a significant role in influencing divorce decisions. Additionally, the influence of friends and other family members can significantly impact the dissolution of marriages(July 30, 2022)

A 2019 report reveals instances where a divorced woman cited interference from her former husband's family in their day-to-day issues, leading to arguments and even physical harassment. Moreover, the reluctance of her husband's family to allow her to continue her employment further strained the marriage.⁵⁹ There is also a rising shift in traditional family structures, and we are witnessing a rapid transformation in the Bangladeshi family today. With the worldwide trend, the nuclear family has expanded in Bangladesh throughout the years. Interviewee no. 9 explains that “we see extended families turn into nuclear families. Husband-wife conflict is a common phenomenon. Due to a lack of a mediator, couples fail to reach a consensus, leading to divorce” (August 2, 2022).

Breaking Down the Social Taboo

Divorce remains a social taboo in many parts of the country, with divorced women often being viewed as shameful and dishonorable. However, there is a gradual shift in attitudes, particularly in places like Dhaka, where societal norms are evolving. This change is attributed to the increasing number of women obtaining college degrees and entering the workforce, which has led to greater acceptance of women's ability to make decisions in their personal lives, including the choice to end a marriage. Interviewee no. 4 recalled that before the 90 s, societal pressure often forced women to remain in unhappy marriages, regardless of the hardships they faced. Divorce was stigmatized and considered a social crime, compelling many women to endure physical and mental torture rather than seek separation (July 26, 2022). She shared a personal anecdote about her cousin, who stayed in a loveless marriage her entire life due to familial and societal expectations. However, societal attitudes have evolved over time. Interviewee no. 4 recounted a recent incident where a girl divorced her physically disabled husband after a year of marriage, illustrating a shift in social norms and acceptance of divorce (July 26, 2022).

Mismatching

Mismatching is identified as a catalyst for marriage breakups. Interviewee no. 5 said that sometimes we see a family mismatch between bride and groom. For example, when a bride belongs to a well-educated family compared to the groom, she can hardly adjust to the environment. Both belong to different cultures, which cause conflict between them. Ultimately, this relationship turns to divorce (July 28, 2022).

Child marriage is also another vital cause of marriage dissolution. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics and UNICEF's most recent study (Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2019),⁶⁰ 15.5% of girls under 15 are married in Bangladesh, and the UNICEF survey found that the under-15 and under-18 marriage rate is 51.4 per cent. Interviewee no. 6 said that “child marriage is a significant reason for divorce in our country” (July 30, 2022). People who marry at a young age may lack self-awareness and be uncertain about their own prospects and potential, and they may also be prone to misinterpret their spouses’ personalities and expected trajectories.⁶¹ Nevertheless, interviewee no. 7 said that huge marriage age gaps sometimes cause divorce. “In Bangladesh, most settled men marry young girls aged between 15 to 20. On the other hand, a settled man's minimum age is 27 to 35. When mature and settled men marry young, immature girls, they face problems in their married life, which sometimes causes divorce” (July 30, 2022).

Influence of Modern Western Culture

Bangladesh has recently experienced a dramatic loss in social and moral norms. Interviewee no. 11 said that nowadays, we see the degradation of cultural and religious values day by day because of western culture influence. People tend to follow the culture of the West.

We saw in the past that many people married one another without any registration; however, their bonding was quite good, and they never went for divorce. I feel sorry to say that Western cultural influence decreases our cultural and religious values. We take divorce normally as Western culture does. In this case, I think social media significantly changes our thinking and decreases our cultural and religious values.” (August 8, 2022)

Interviewee no. 10 states that in Dhaka city, the number of unmarried couples living together rises daily, which causes an increasing number of divorces in Dhaka city. He said that in my study, I found that divorce tendency is higher among modern people, especially those who are from private universities and who live together as a couple without marriage. The newly developed “live together culture” is also having an impact on married couples. In this regard, she shared:

With the help of modern technologies, Western culture is rapidly expanding in our country, and more people are becoming interested in Western culture. Western culture severely impacts our own culture, primarily affecting the younger generations and aristocratic families. With the influence of western culture living together is growing among unmarried couples. This concept is very popular among private university students in Dhaka city. When a modern girl lives with her boyfriend without commitment, they feel completely free in their life. They do not have to follow traditional rules or care for their husband's other family members. However, when these girls marry someone and are forced by their family and the groom's family to follow some family tradition, they feel controlled, which bothers them too much. Therefore, they have to get divorced from their husband to lead an independent and dame-care life. (August 4, 2022)

Modern Western culture affects Bangladesh through social media.

Extramarital Relationship

Interviewee no. 11 said industrialization and the extramarital relationship have an interconnection that significantly impacts marital dissolution.

We see many young people (male and female) come to Dhaka city or other industrial areas to seek jobs because there is plenty of opportunity to get a job. Many people moved to cities alone because living with the whole family in the city area is so expensive. When a married man comes here without his family and wife, they usually visit their family after one or two months, sometimes six months. We all are human beings and have some physical needs. This leads men to fill up the gap in their relationships by engaging in extramarital relationships with their female colleagues. When their relationship is exposed, sometimes, they get divorced from their wife. (August 8, 2022)

In the study of Akter and Begum,⁶² some interviewees stated their husbands’ involvement with extramarital affairs. This caused them to feel cheated, which harmed their marital relationship. Husbands who had extramarital affairs with other women, ex-wives, or ex-lovers influence women's divorce decisions. Interviewee no. 11 shared another story:

Many professional employers join our master's program for their educational needs in our institution. Most of them are married or already have children; however, they go into extramarital relationships with other people. This is also crucial in increasing divorce in Dhaka City (August 8, 2022)

Husband's Abusiveness and Addiction to Drugs

Domestic abuse can be defined as mental, verbal, and physical. Domestic abuse is a widespread practice in Bangladesh.⁶³ According to a WHO⁶⁴ report, Bangladesh is now one of the leading countries in intimate partner violence against women (VAW), and 50 per cent of women aged 15 to 49 have experienced physical or sexual violence at the hands of their partners at some point in their lives. On the other hand, Bangladesh has the highest rate of maltreating females in South Asia, according to a Unicef survey.⁶⁵ Nearly half (47%) of married females (15–19 years old) are abused by their husbands or partner.

Interviewees 9 and 8 stated that domestic abuse could often deteriorate marital harmony (August 2, 2022). As interviewee no. 9 commented:

Divorce and family crises arise when a male partner becomes more abusive. In the past, women tolerated the abusive behaviour of their husbands. In Dhaka city, men are more psychologically abusive than physically because, in this area, more people are educated. Sometimes they compare themselves to others because of their qualification and behaviour. However, now women are more educated, and they are economically independent. As a result, they cannot tolerate their husband and their husband's family member's abusive behaviour. (August 2, 2022)

The drug addict is a threat to the family because of the hostile behavior of the drug abuser. This is not yet so common in our society. Yet, few cases are found where divorce took place due to husband's drag addiction. Interviewee no. 8 said that the husband's drug addiction lead to divorce (August 2, 2022).

Discussion

Industrialization, urbanization, and women's empowerment are deeply connected with the rise of women's individualism. Interviewee no. 11 emphasizes the significant role of industrialization in promoting women's empowerment in Bangladesh. He points out that industrialization provides women with increased access to education and job opportunities, enabling them to achieve financial independence. As a result, women become more self-reliant and help develop individualistic behavior in women (August 8, 2022). The co-relation between industrialization and the rise of individualism is already established. Industrialization leads to self-autonomy and self-expression.⁶⁶

Industrialization in Bangladesh has significantly impacted women's economic independence, leading to increased individualism and higher divorce rates, particularly in Dhaka City. Traditionally dependent on men, women now find financial independence through new job opportunities created by industrialization. Interviewee no. 1 notes that this financial independence has fostered individualistic attitudes among women in Dhaka (July 17, 2022). Interviewee no. 8 adds that industrialization also promotes women's education, further enhancing their autonomy and decision-making abilities (August 2, 2022). Jahan et al.⁶⁷ emphasize that education empowers women by giving them control over household resources, participation in income-generating activities, and awareness of their legal rights and protections against violence. Modernization, globalization, urbanization, and industrialization have collectively expanded women's access to education and employment, fostering self-reliance and reducing their willingness to tolerate unsatisfactory marriages.

Financial independence also contributes to higher divorce rates, as women refuse to endure discrimination or abuse from their spouses or in-laws (interviewee no. 1, July 17, 2022). Jones⁶⁸ concurs, noting that employed women face increased marital tension and exposure to potential partners, further promoting divorce. Thus, Dhaka's economic development fosters individualistic traits, sometimes leading to marital breakdowns, a trend also observed by Ermisch.⁶⁹

Some interviewees also adopt the theory of urbanism, which means women living in urban areas are prone to divorce. Interviewee no. 5 opines that women reared in Dhaka City are more individualistic due to their feminist awareness than in other parts of the country. Some scholars have also argued that those who grow up in urban regions have a greater separation rate than those brought up in rural.⁷⁰^–⁷²

Individualism has also increased the chances of mismatching among urban women. Interviewee no. 5 highlights that mismatching could lead to a higher likelihood of divorce in urban areas. Individualism affects people's choices and prioritizes one's own needs and desires over their partner, making it difficult for couples to compromise and find common ground. This individualistic nature can lead to a greater focus on personal happiness and self-fulfillment, which may cause individuals to end a relationship that does not meet their expectations.⁷³

Globalization helps increase individualism by fostering a Western culture of free mixing and pre-marital sex. It normalizes things that go against traditional values (interviewee no. 11, August 8, 2022). Another effect of globalization is the use of social media. Through social media, people connect themselves with unknown people that significantly impact their family and personal lives. This is how social media creates mistrust between spouses, leading to divorce. Ziha et al.⁷⁴ extrapolate that social media has become the source of many problems and has affected married life badly, such as fights with partners, extramarital affairs, and increased mistrust. The extramarital relationship causes divorce. “Extramarital relationship among educated and high-profile people is high in Dhaka City because when people realize that their understanding level with their partner is not matched or any martial dissatisfaction, it leads them to make an illegal relationship with their colleagues and other persons” (interview no. 11, August 8, 2023). Lammers et al.⁷⁵ surveyed 1275 professionals’ high profile, and their study showed that women with higher authoring power in their workplace are more involved in extramarital relationships than men.

The shift in traditional values has also been addressed by 12 interviewees due to the rise of individualism. Interviewee no. 4 said that divorce has traditionally been viewed as a social taboo and a sign of failure in a marriage. However, recent social and educational developments have led to a shift in attitudes toward divorce (July 21 to 28, 2023]. To Giddens,⁷⁶ individualistic culture promotes individual choice and autonomy, which can result in individuals feeling less constrained by social norms and expectations. It could also promote a sense of entitlement, making people think they can pursue their own satisfaction without considering their partner's needs.⁷⁷ This entitlement can cause marriage dissatisfaction and a higher probability of divorce.⁷⁸

As women are more individualistic now, they no longer tolerate physical and verbal abuse. This tendency also leads women to seek more divorces (interview no. 8, August 2, 2023). Toews et al.⁷⁹ support this finding that psychological and physical abuses are the primary reasons for marital dissolution. Ten interviewees also point out some other reasons that increase the chances of mismatching. These issues included drug addiction, financial crisis, losing intimacy, creating chronic stress and fear, infertility, and child marriages. Alam's⁸⁰ research shows how infertility causes divorces in rural Bangladesh; Booth and Edwards,⁸¹ South and Spitze,⁸² and Thornton and Rogers⁸³ argue that marriage at an early age increases the chances of divorce because the child lacks maturity and understanding.

Another factor that is very prominent in Bangladesh is that a good number of Bangladeshi are working abroad, leaving their spouse at home. Their absence often leads to extramarital affairs and marital breakdowns. Women are affected mostly. Interviewee no. 7 said that the absence of a spouse due to work-related migration could result in a breakdown of trust and communication in the relationship, ultimately leading to infidelity and divorce (July 30, 2022). Furthermore, interviewee no. 11 comments that when women migrant workers return home, they often face suspicion and mistrust from their husbands, who may believe they have been unfaithful during their time abroad. This can lead to a breakdown in the marriage and even domestic violence (August 8, 2022).

Conclusion

Divorce is still frowned upon in many sections of the country, particularly in rural communities, where a divorced woman is associated with humiliation and shame. However, it may be claimed that attitudes against divorcees are slowly fading away in cities like Dhaka, where industrialization, urbanization, the influence of Western Culture, technological development, and social development (education, job opportunity, and women's empowerment) are creating individualistic characteristics, which are allowing people to leave their conservative ideas.

The rise of individualism has led people to prioritize their own happiness and personal satisfaction, which can lead to marital breakdown if they feel their present marriage is unsatisfactory or their partner is abusive. In Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, the facilities for education and job opportunities are higher compared to other areas of the country, allowing women to become financially independent and participate in decision making in family matters. This financial independence can lead to women taking the decision to dissolve their marriage if they are unhappy or their partner is unfaithful. The industrialization of the city has contributed to this individualistic mindset among women, which causes the rise in divorce rates in Dhaka. In short, it can be concluded that globalization, modernization, urbanization, and industrialization ensure women's education and employment, leading to women's empowerment. Women's empowerment helps the rise of individualism, which prioritizes one's own interests and puts pressure on women's willingness to sacrifice themselves which can lead to seeking divorce.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Shafi Md Mostofa

Notes

Author Biographies

Md Tariqul Islam Tanvir is a ‘Research Associate’ of the Department of World Religions and Culture at the University of Dhaka under the mentorship of Dr. Shafi Md Mostofa.

Shafi Md Mostofa (PhD) is a theologian and security studies scholar with broad interests in political Islam, authoritarianism, modern South Asian history and politics, and international relations and the clash of civilizations. He is an Associate Professor of World Religions and Culture at Dhaka University's Faculty of Arts and an Adjunct Lecturer at the University of New England, Australia. He is also serving as a fellow at the London School of Economics and Political Science. He has published extensively with Routledge, Springer, Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press, SAGE, Brill, Wiley and Blackwell; and the journals: Politics and Religion, Politics and Policy, Perspectives on Terrorism, Diaspora Studies, and Asian and African Studies. He is the author of “Islamist Militancy in Bangladesh: A Pyramid Root Cause Model” (Cham, Springer) and “Dynamics of Violent Extremism in South Asia: Nexus between State Fragility and Extremism” (Singapore, Palgrave Macmillan). He is also a guest editor of the Journal of World Affairs, SAGE.