Drive-Leg Kinematics During the Windup and Pushoff Is Associated With Pitching Kinetics at Later Phases of the Pitch

Abstract

Background:

Inconsistent findings exist between drive-leg ground-reaction forces (GRFs) and pitching mechanics. Previous literature has largely reported drive-leg mechanics and GRFs at the start of the pushoff phase for their role in initiating force development. Little research has assessed drive-leg kinematics that includes a pitcher’s windup motion to determine its effects on subsequent phases in the pitching motion.

Purpose/Hypothesis:

The primary aim was to analyze the relationship between drive-leg knee valgus angle during the windup and subsequent pitching mechanics. We hypothesized that the drive-leg knee valgus angle during the early portion of the pitching motion would alter later phases’ pitching mechanics. A secondary aim was to assess GRFs to determine if the drive-leg knee valgus angle was associated with changes in force. We hypothesized that an increased drive-leg knee valgus angle would increase GRFs during the pitching motion.

Study Design:

Descriptive laboratory study.

Methods:

A total of 17 high school baseball pitchers (mean age, 16.1 ± 0.9 years; mean height, 180.0 ± 4.8 cm; mean weight, 75.5 ± 7.5 kg) volunteered for the study. Kinematic data and GRFs were collected using an electromagnetic tracking system and force plates. Pitchers threw maximal-effort fastballs from a mound at regulation distance. The drive-leg knee valgus angle was analyzed during the windup and pushoff phases of the pitch to determine its effects on other biomechanical variables throughout the pitching motion.

Results:

There was a significant relationship between drive-leg knee valgus angle during the windup (Fchange 1,12) = 16.13; P = .002; R² = 0.695) and lateral GRF in the arm-cocking phase. Additionally, there was a significant relationship between drive-leg knee valgus angle during pushoff (Fchange(2,11) = 10.21; P = .003; R² = 0.716) and lateral GRF in the arm-cocking phase and pitching-elbow valgus moment in the acceleration phase.

Conclusion:

Drive-leg knee valgus angle during the windup and pushoff had a significant relationship with drive-leg GRF and pitching-elbow valgus moment at later stages of the pitching cycle.

Clinical Relevance:

Assessments of drive-leg kinematics during the windup and pushoff may be useful in identifying inefficient movement patterns that can have an effect on the direction of a pitcher’s drive-leg force contribution, which can lead to increased forces on the throwing elbow.

Keywords

baseball elbow ground-reaction force knee valgus moment

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Barfield

Anz

Andrews

Oliver

GD.

Relationship of glove arm kinematics with established pitching kinematic and kinetic variables among youth baseball pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med. 2018;6(7): 2325967118784937.

Chaudhari

McKenzie

Borchers

Best

TM.

Lumbopelvic control and pitching performance of professional baseball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(8):2127-2132.

Chaudhari

McKenzie

Pan

Onate

JA.

Lumbopelvic control and days missed because of injury in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(11):2734-2740.

Claiborne

Armstrong

Gandhi

Pincivero

DM.

Relationship between hip and knee strength and knee valgus during a single leg squat. J Appl Biomech. 2006;22(1):41-50.

Cope

Wechter

Stucky

Thomas

Wilhelm

The impact of lumbopelvic control on overhead performance and shoulder injury in overhead athletes: a systematic review. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2019;14(4):500-513.

Elliott

Grove

Gibson

Timing of the lower limb drive and throwing limb movement in baseball pitching. Sports Biomech. 1988;4(1):59-67.

Farrokhi

Voycheck

Gustafson

Fitzgerald

Tashman

Knee joint contact mechanics during downhill gait and its relationship with varus/valgus motion and muscle strength in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Knee. 2016;23(1):49-56.

Feltner

Dapena

Dynamics of the shoulder and elbow joints of the throwing arm during a baseball pitch. Int J Sport Biomech. 1986;2(4):235-259.

Fleisig

Andrews

Dillman

Escamilla

RF.

Kinetics of baseball pitching with implications about injury mechanisms. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23(2):233-239.

10.

Fleisig

Diffendaffer

Ivey

, et al. Changes in youth baseball pitching biomechanics: a 7-year longitudinal study. Am J Sports Med. 2018;46(1):44-51.

11.

Fortenbaugh

Fleisig

Andrews

. Baseball pitching biomechanics in relation to injury risk and performance. Sports Health. 2009;1(4):314-320.

12.

Haung

Learman

Tsai

YS.

A comparison of throwing kinematics between youth baseball players with and without a history of medial elbow pain. Clin J Phys. 2010;53(3):160-166.

13.

Hinman

Hunt

Creaby

Wrigley

McManus

Bennell

KL.

Hip muscle weakness in individuals with medial knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2010;62:1190-1193.

14.

Hirth

CJ.

Clinical movement analysis to identify muscle imbalances and guide exercise. Athl Ther Today. 2007;12(4):10-14.

15.

Huang

C-F

Lin

C-L.

The characteristics of lower limb moments in baseball pitching. Portuguese J Sport Sci. 2011;11:89-92.

16.

Kageyama

Sugiyama

Kanehisa

Maeda

Difference between adolescent and collegiate baseball pitchers in kinematics and kinetics of the lower limbs and trunk during pitching motion. J Sports Sci Med. 2015;14(2):246-255.

17.

Kageyama

Sugiyama

Takai

Kanehisa

Maeda

Kinematic and kinetic profiles of trunk and lower limbs during baseball pitching in collegiate pitchers. J Sports Sci Med. 2014;13(4):742-750.

18.

Kaizu

Watanabe

Yamaii

Correlation of upper limb joint load with simultaneous throwing mechanics including acceleration parameters in amateure baseball pitchers. J Phys Ther Sci. 2018;30(2):223-230.

19.

Kibler

Wilkes

Sciascia

Mechanics and pathomechanics in the overhead athlete. Clin Sports Med. 2013;32(4):637-651.

20.

Laudner

Wong

Meister

The influence of lumbopelvic control on shoulder and elbow kinetics in elite baseball pitchers. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2019;28(2):330-334.

21.

Laudner

Wong

Evans

Meister

Lumbopelvic control and the development of upper extremity injury in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2021;49(4):1059-1064.

22.

MacWilliams

Choi

Perezous

Chao

McFarland

EG.

Characteristic ground-reaction forces in baseball pitching. Am J Sports Med. 1998;26(1):66-71.

23.

McNally

Borstad

Onate

Chaudhari

AM.

Stride leg ground reaction forces predict throwing velocity in adult recreational baseball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(10):2708-2715.

24.

Nicholson

Hulburt

Kimura

Aguinaldo

AL.

Relationship between ground reaction force and throwing arm kinetics in high school and collegiate baseball pitchers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. Published online November 25, 2021. doi:10.23736/S0022-4707.21.13150-0

25.

Oliver

Weimar

Hip range of motion and scapula position in youth baseball pitching pre and post simulated game. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(14):1447-1453.

26.

Oyama

Myers

JB.

The relationship between the push off ground reaction force and ball spin in high school baseball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res. 2018;32(5):1324-1328.

27.

Oyama

Blackburn

Padua

Myers

JB.

Effect of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(10):2430-2438.

28.

Plummer

Oliver

Powers

Michener

LA.

Trunk lean during a single-leg squat is associated with trunk lean during pitching. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2018;13:58-65.

29.

Putnam

CA.

A segment interaction analysis of proximal-to-distal sequential segment motion patterns. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991;23:130-144.

30.

Putnam

CA.

Sequential motions of body segments in striking and throwing skills: descriptions and explanations. J Biomech. 1993;26(suppl 1):125-135.

31.

Solomito

Garibay

Nissen

CW.

Sagittal plane trunk tilt is associated with upper extremity joint moments and ball velocity in collegiate baseball pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med. 2018;6(10):2325967118800240.

32.

Solomito

Garibay

Woods

Ounpuu

Nissen

CW.

Lateral trunk lean in pitchers affects both ball velocity and upper extremity joint moments. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(5):1235-1240.

33.

Takacs

Hunt

MA.

The effect of contralateral pelvic drop and trunk lean on frontal plane knee biomechanics during single limb standing. J Biomech. 2012;45(16):2791-2796.

34.

Tippett

SR.

Lower extremity strength and active range of motion in college baseball pitchers: a comparison between stance leg and kick leg. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1986;8(1):10-14.

35.

van Trigt

Schallig

van der Graaff

Hoozemans

MJM

Veeger

Knee angle and stride length in association with ball speed in youth baseball pitchers. Sports (Basel). 2018;6(2):51.

36.

Wasserberger

Barfield

Anz

Andrews

Oliver

GD.

Using the single leg squat as an assessment of stride leg knee mechanics in adolescent baseball pitchers. J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22:1254-1259.

37.

Wilczynski

Zorena

Slezak

Dynamic knee valgus in single-leg movement tasks: potentially modifiable factors and exercise training options. A literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17(21):8208.

38.

van der Helm

FCT

Veeger

HEJ

, et al. ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion, part II: shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand. J Biomech. 2005;38(5):981-992.

39.

Zipser

Plummer

Kindstrand

Sum

Michener

LA.

Hip abduction strength: relationship to trunk and lower extremity motion during a single-leg step-down task in professional baseball players. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2021;16(2):342-349.