Abstract
The key note address by Peter C. Bisschop, ‘150 years of Sanskrit studies in the Netherlands: The Karnapurāna’ explains the growth and development of Sanskrit studies under Hendrik Kern and his contributions. Two major contributions of Kern are the editing and translation of Varāhamihira’s Bŗhat sañhitā and the Aryabhaţīya, among others.
The article ‘The Abominable Yati’ by Daniel Balogh discusses metrical anomalies of yati, caesurae in English, in Sanskrit versification. The author explains the technical aspects of yati in the Sanskrit metrics. The author illustrates the caesurae obscured by vowel samdhi and anomalous caesurae with examples. The verses from the pillar inscription of the Mandasor and the Allahabad praśasti had been taken up for further study. The position of caesurae in iambic and trochaic feet is also explained. Employment of obscure word breaks is not a transgression of the caesurae and the distribution of yati across meters is not a random one.
Malgorzata Sulich-Cowley examines the significance of the ‘adpositions’ in Sanskrit with special reference to prati. The semantic value of upasargas (verbal prefix), nipatas (particle), etc. with a specific analysis of prati—its influence over the verbal roots, determination of its meaning and its role as karakas (case determinants)—are demonstrated with relevant quotations. The author concludes that ‘regardless of the variety of contexts in which prati appears, there is a common meaning in almost all of them’.
The article ‘Welcome with Open Arms: Iranian Loanwords in the Purāņic Lexicon’ by Martina Palladino traces the connection between the Maga Brahmins and the cultural environment of Iran. Magas came from the land of Śākadvīpa, the Iranian Śākastāna or modern Sistan. The author enlists the presence of Iranian loanwords in the puranic lexicon, specifically in the Sāmba and Bhavişya purāņas. The four classes of Śākadvīpa, the ritual terminology and some proper names, such as Mihira for Mithra, Raśnu for Raja, Saośra for Stosa and Jaraśastra for Zarathuštra, and other terms have been analysed. She connects asura to the Avestan ahura or ‘lord’. Varahamihira, the sixth century CE astronomer, who was a sun-worshipper and probably a Maga, she says, describes the calendar of the Maga Brahmins in the first chapter of his Pañcasiddhāntikā, which is based on the Zoroastrian calendar. This article could be very interesting if more proofs were provided for many of her averments.
The efforts of Samskrita Bharati, an organisation to promote spoken Sanskrit and communicative language, are narrated by Patrick McCartney who analyses spoken Sanskrit in a socio-linguistic approach. The author examines the studies and the efforts undertaken by a few organisations and scholars. A list of fifteen villages where people speak Sanskrit is given. He visited two villages, Gamiri Gaon in Assam and Jhiri in Madhya Pradesh, and narrates his experiences and findings.
A few glimpses of the description of nature from the poem Śrigovindavilāsamahākāvya, Sarga 1, are taken up for scrutiny by Judith Unterdörfler in the article ‘Nature and Character Emotions in the “Śrigovindavilāsamahākāvya, Sarga 1”’. Nature’s influence, with the emotions of characters and the poet’s description of nature, are described in this article. The story is about Lord Krishna’s amorous amusements in Vrindavana, the personification of spring and its arrival and the longing and love of the gopikas is described through beautiful metaphors. Nature is used as an expressive medium and as a symbolic representation to indicate emotions and moods. This is an unpublished work and this review may encourage scholars to study it further.
The article ‘How to Teach Sanskrit Grammar—The Case of the Perfect System in the Bhattikāvya’ highlights the vyakarana aspects and poetic nuances of the Bhattikāvya, the earliest known Sanskrit didactic poem and a handbook of teaching the perfect tense (lit) and its variations through examples. Lidia Szczepanik-Wojtczak explains functional aspects and prescribes the work as an educational aid to teach the perfect tense. Katyayana’s Vārttika and Patanjali’s Mahābhāshya are necessary to comprehend the Ashtādhyāyi of Panini.
Rhythm constitutes the basis of all musical compositions. Vaņņam is a set of musical form in the ancient Tamil music tradition. Prakash Venkatesan discusses the literary evidence of vannam and its milieu. Music was an integral part in the rituals of ancient Tamil culture. ‘Pan’ means music and it applies to all forms of music. Tolkāppiyam refers to vaņņams, the structure and functioning aspects. Twenty kinds of vaņņams, with further divisions, such as sound, cīr and formulaic rules were identified by Tolkaapiyar. Tolkāppiyar’s references to akaval, ceppal, tuļļal and tūnkal, and their connection to vaņņam are also explained.
The evolution of Kathak as a performative art, its theory and performances and equating it with that of Bharat Natyam, similarities of its concepts and abhinayas are dealt in ‘Kathak as a Śāstrīya Nŗitya’ authored by Katarzyana Skiba. The author explores the phenomenon of establishing Kathak as a classical dance and to link various theories and conventions, such as rasa, abhinaya, etc. found in ancient Sanskrit texts. Madame Menaka, a famous Kathak exponent, tried to refashion Kathak as a refined art with the view that ‘dance is a medium for the expression of the life and emotions of a nation’. Abhinaya is an essential component in the performing aspect and the theory of aesthetic experience, while rasa is the ultimate for all types of dances.
In Sāmkhya philosophy, buddhi (intellect) is the first among the twenty-three principles that manifests from mūla prakŗti. According to the Sāmkhyakārikā, buddhi is categorised by determination and has four functions, namely dharma, jñāna, viraga and aiśvarya. Intellect is determination. Virtue, knowledge, dispassion and supernatural power are its forms. Sāmkhyakārikā also enumerates the eight functions of buddhi that surface in different perceptions in proportion to the gunas.
The commentaries list different types of aiśvarya or ‘supernatural power’ and Jooyoung Lim in ‘Charting the Samkhya Commentarial Literature—A Study of the Lists of Types of Supernatural Power (aiśvarya)’ limits his analysis to the commentaries written between the fifth and tenth centuries. Aiśvarya, according to the Samkhya metaphysical system, is supernatural power and it has eight kinds of qualities—ashtagunamaiśvaryam, such as animā, laghimā, mahimā, etc. A few commentators include garimā as a ninth quality. This article focuses on four powers namely animā, laghimā, garimā and mahimā. Unfortunately, the frequent use of the Chinese script is distracting and does not help the reader.
Lucas den Boer, in his article ‘Gunaratna’s Refutation of the Cārvāka Perspective on the Soul’, analyses Tarkarahasyadīpikā. Texts on Indian philosophy discuss materialist doctrines, such as Lokāyata, Cārvāka and Nāstika. The materialists do not accept the existence of the soul and there is nothing beyond the objects of the senses. The body is an aggregate of four elements: earth, water, fire and air. Neglecting materialistic pleasure is foolish and the highest goal is sensual pleasure.
Gunaratna refutes the claim of the Cārvākas about the non-existence of the soul. Jīva is characterised by consciousness and it is the soul. The goal is to separate soul from everything and to attain liberation. Cārvākas claim that consciousness is caused by the elements and not by the soul. Gunaratna counters it explaining that the soul is perceptible by direct perception through self-cognition.
The stories about Vişņu were a popular theme for ancient Khmer patrons and artists during the Angkorean period in Southeast Asia. Johannes Eijsermans took two cases to illustrate his point from the ancient Khmer inscriptions and images in his article on ‘The Benign Overlord and the Restorer of Dharma’. The Samudramanthana story of the churning of the milky ocean and Kŗşņa lifting Mount Govardhana, with splendid relief sculptures, were taken up for the study, linking them with issues, such as a benevolent monarchy, divine traits, supremacy, etc. King Jayavarman VII was referred to in the praśasti and the inscriptions depict him as a protector of his vassal kings. An inscriptional stele in ‘Banthat’ village near Bassac in Laos contains information about King Suryavarman II of Mahidharapura dynasty. The praśastis on various steles and the inscriptional steles glorify the adventures, military conquests and virtues of the kings, equating them to gods.
The role of local residents, village headmen and other communities in the creation of temples is brought out by Elizabeth A. Cecil in her article ‘Power and Piety in “Emplaced Polities”’, with special reference to temple patronage and donation under the North Konkan Śilāhāras, between the ninth and twelfth centuries. The term ‘Emplaced Polity’ denotes a particular mode of political formation that prevailed in early medieval India. Although Śilāhāras were subordinate to the Rashtrakuta and Chalukya dynasties, they made worthy contributions to the Konkan’s religious landscape. Kings were manifested as the main architects of religious institutions and temples. The contribution of North Konkan towards developing the present Mumbai, Sopara, Kalyan and other parts was significant. Large numbers of copper plates, relief sculptures and stone inscriptions regarding deeds of the Śilāhāras are mentioned.
The author looks into the construction of temples as a collective team effort fashioned to build and maintain social harmony. The offerings of locals are also to be considered in building the temples, religious monuments and institutions. Many copper plates and stone inscriptions record the contributions of the kings and awarding of grants for the administration and maintenance of the temple. Rebuilding of social history and practice of religious life are inter-related and the involvement of all was the prominent feature of the north Konkan region.