Assessing Cultural Experiences in Historic Urban Centres: Built Forms and Qualities

Abstract

Human settlements evolved over time and the historic towns of yesterday are the growing urban centres of today. The built environment in historic areas is undergoing such rapid transformation that visitors are no longer able to experience cultural values of the past. Identifying the cultural values that people experience in terms of the qualities of what, where and how may support a more realistic form of conservation planning. To assess one’s cultural experience in a historic centre, it is important to delineate the significant architectural heritage and its multiple qualities across time. For the purposes of this heritage value study, the historic city of Tiruchirappalli in southern India is chosen. The city, one of the oldest in India, is situated on the banks of a river and comprises an age-old hillock and many other important built forms. Using rapid ethnographic assessment methods, 12 characteristic forms were found and these were categorised according to eight qualities: historical, sacred, visual, spatial, functional, physical, memorable and sensitive. The validity of these qualities from peoples’ experiences on cultural values require further examination on a few sample streets with special focus on where and how visitors and residents feel the strongest sense of place.

Keywords

Historic urban centres cultural values value experience heritage conservation

Highlights

This article assesses cultural experience in the built forms of a historic urban centre through categorisation of its built forms of significant qualities.

Rapid ethnographic assessment methodology-based approach is used to assess the cultural experience in the historic urban centre of Tiruchirappalli—one of the oldest historic settlements of India.

This article calls for the need to consider knowledge of historic built forms and the related cultural experiences towards conservation planning of historic urban areas.

Introduction and the Research Problem

Over ages, settlement evolution was often determined by the consideration of physical and geographical factors and the related cultural factors (Smith 2014). People associated themselves with natural landscapes and build ‘forms’ that help in establishing ‘relationships’. Every city evolves from its history, culture and the associated economic activities. It took several thousands of years for cities to grow over various geographical and cultural contexts. Evolution and the growth of such cities, particularly in Asia, is often informed by its historical remnants, archival records, religious sources, literature, physical features, etc. Later during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and until early twentieth century, most of these cities were colonised by many Europeans. Local monarchs were conquered and a number of colonial and post-colonial developments were established.

Historic urban centres in southern India are often associated and signified with larger natural forms such as a river, rocky outcrop or other physiographic features enclosed by the urban built environment. The temples, palaces, partially demolished fort walls, colonial buildings and other manmade structures are some of the indicators of historical settlement evolution. These artefacts in historic urban centres have frequently been the targets of developers and urban modernisation plans and their alteration or destruction has significantly changed the cultural flavour of the area. Visitors now can have only a vague experience of the cultural values of the past.

In order to reconcile conservation with development, it is therefore important for authorities to provide an appropriate cultural value experience in historic urban centres. One of the first tasks is to identify the architectural and built heritage of the area that most contributes to an individual’s appreciation of the unique cultural value of the historic urban centre. Within such a framework, it is possible to define the experiential qualities people relate to in locating cultural values. This readability will not only enhance people’s knowledge of cultural values but may also incline them to participate in various phases of conservation planning. This article primarily uses a few ethnographic methods to identify the significant built forms in a historic urban centre and the multiple qualities of cultural values therein.

Literature Review

Cultural Value

Culture is the word that comes from the root that means to cultivate or develop. A culture, therefore, is a concentrated value that exists among people as a society. These concentrated value, as culture is of diverse quality. Different historical areas possess diverse cultural values (Mohammad et al. 2013). UNESCO has highlighted upon the need for distinguishing such diverse cultural values in any historic area (Van Oers 2010). The concept of value of the past culture in a historic area is often related to how people socially associate themselves with various qualities that exist since the past and to various things that they experience in their daily activities. Values are therefore evolved by various practices of social and cultural significances. An understanding and awareness of such practices also help people in evolving values. The concept of value in the earlier studies was looked upon, as a mere fundamental quality and of common worldwide. But now, value is generally considered as a societal concept which comes from various cultural backgrounds across time and space. Such values of culture are often shared by a group of people or communities and are given validity through an accepted way of transferring them from one generation to the next.

Assessing Cultural Value: International Conservation Methodologies

The experts, who participated in a global meet that aimed at managing heritage resources of natural and cultural significance, defined ‘outstanding universal value’. This value attempts to interpret how human cultures across the world respond and address various issues that are common to everyone. While addressing aspects of heritage resources of natural significance, these issues will be apparent through diverse geographical conditions, flora, fauna, etc. On the other hand, while addressing aspects of heritage resources of cultural significance, values evolve from human activities and the cultural practices that are resulted from them. Using the information available from various meetings and conferences of the global meet, the following six themes were arrived as a fundamental reference for identifying the universal value. They are

cultural associations,

expressions of creativity,

spiritual responses,

utilisation of natural resources,

movement of people and

development of technologies.

The key steps in the process of conservation planning were outlined by senior heritage planners, towards the development of policies for historic places’ conservation. de la Torre and Mason (2002) examined a number of methodological approaches to value assessment in conservation planning. While assessing values, experts use texts, iconography, semiology and a few formal methods. These values are usually interpreted by a theoretical background study, which usually does not support the goal of wider participation of people. The ethnography method employs the technique that records and describes various qualities of cultural value and this method often uses interviews and surveys as data collection tools. While studying about the usefulness of ethnographic methods for assessing cultural value in heritage conservation, discusses some of the qualitative methodologies in cultural anthropology. The scale of inquiry for these approaches varies from individuals to groups to societies, and the degree of involvement varies from minimal to moderate to total. Various research problems are identified based on the methodological approaches suggested. A number of anthropological-ethnographic approaches have been suggested. Ethno-semantic methods are useful in decoding local values as elements of materials, which may then be preserved. Rapid ethnographic assessments are beneficial that recognise various elements of value in order to find the inter-relationships that exist among elements through a process of data collection, qualitatively informing about the knowledge of the past. Table 1 shows methodologies for assessing cultural values and heritage conservation.

Table 1.

Methodologies for Assessing Cultural Values and Heritage Conservation

Methodology	Authors	Purpose	Method
Outstanding universal value	Jokilehto (2006) ICOMOS	To address the issues related to natural and cultural processes concerned with many human cultures.	1. cultural associations, 2. expressions of creativity, 3. spiritual responses, 4. utilisation of natural resources, 5. movement of people, and 6. development of technologies of transportation
Conservation planning methodology	Heritage-British Columbia (2011)	To develop strategies towards the conservation of places of cultural value	1. Understand the historic place: description, planning context and chronology. 2. Evaluate significance: heritage and academic values, amenities and character-defining elements. 3. Assess potential impacts: Requirements for retaining the significance, user requirements, physical conditions and other factors 4. Developing conservation programme: proposed intervention, character-defining elements and conservation policies
Assessing values in conservation planning	de la Torre and Mason (2002)	To examine a number of methodological approaches of value assessment	1. Experts’ understanding through texts, iconography, semiology and formal methods 2. Ethnography methods that describe and record characteristics of a culture employing interviews and surveys as data collection tools
Assessing cultural values for heritage conservation	de la Torre and Low (2002)	To put forth some of the qualitative methodologies in cultural anthropology	1. Ethno-semantic methodologies: design and translation at historic sites (used in preservation projects) 2. Rapid ethnographic assessment procedures (REAP) methodology

Source: The authors.

Conservation Methods in India

The Director General of the Central Public Works Department published a handbook of conservation of heritage buildings in India in July 2013. The handbook defines key terms used in heritage conservation of buildings in India. The term conservation refers to all processes utilised that upkeeps a place in order to protect any significant value which are of historical, architectural, visual and cultural quality. Such values may be maintained on a regular basis, preserved as available, restored, reconstructed to reveal the past glory and may be reused in an adaptive manner. Furthermore, the following concepts that determine whether a particular building or a group of built forms and sites is suitable for conservation.

historic significance;

historic integrity; and

historic context.

The term historic significance indicates an understanding of how important is a particular building to the culture, history, architecture of a community, landscape region or a nation that it belongs to. The term, historic integrity indicates an understanding of how authenticated is the identity of the particular building, demonstrated by the physical remnants that existed since history. The term, historic context refers to the evidences available about various historic movements and buildings grouped by the historical significance during a certain era of time. This may be of significance to a particular community, or a region or the country. The Central Public Works Department handbook recommends that sacred sites should be treated with an understanding knowledge of the past and also about the local traditional practices that govern sacredness. The conservation may therefore record all characteristics aforesaid in relation to these sites. Buildings and sites are to be classified as grade one to three according to the order of importance in a descending manner. Conservation as often perceived by the western ideologies, suggests less intervention whereas India’s conservation practices demand the other way. Conservation of monuments may be appropriate with the help of western ideologies that reinforces the legal conservation in India. However, in places such as historic urban districts of most of the cities in India, there are rich architectural heritage resources available. Conservation of such heritage resources in such historic areas can provide an opportunity for conservation planning to protect their local traditional values and practices.

Value Experience

The value experience of natural or built forms is primarily determined by the people who experience it and the form’s value by itself. Cadwallader (1980) commented on the significant aspects of value experience as considered at the phenomenological side: value experience is often pluralistic in character and happen often in a certain hierarchy. Values may tend to group themselves as clusters. Brown and Raymond (2014) suggested that people embrace a few values but they also express values for various objects. In this scenario, an understanding of the inherent quality of an object and also about how the object is valued by people is significant. This understanding may determine value of the place or a landscape. (Stephenson 2008). Thwaites (2005) in his experiential landscape model described ways to read the experiential potential of people in any open spaces.

Study Methodology

The ethnographic approach to conservation planning affords a broad framework for examining the various qualities that people experience as cultural values in the built forms of a historic urban centre. There are two main objectives in this study: to identify the characteristic built forms of cultural value in a historic urban centre and to determine the qualities that affect the cultural value experience. In this regard, the REAP (de la Torre & Low 2002) is useful in assessing the cultural values of a historic urban centre and obtaining information from conservation experts, residents and visitors. The following methods were adopted for this study:

Urban transect walking,

Familiarity mapping,

Interviewing historians,

Consulting archival records,

Creating architectural drawings and

Searching the literature.

Urban Transect Walking

Bergeron, et. al. (2014) and Degen and Rose (2012) discusses on significance of sensory experience along the travel in urban conditions. Performing an urban transect walk is a surveying technique suggested by a programme that concerns safety in public spaces for participatory safety planning in cities. The objective is to record the types and condition of different built forms and activity areas and their impression on the observer along the streets. This method involves a systematic walk along a defined path through the study area by a team of researchers with help from key observers in the study area. Before starting the walk, the participants meet to agree on the route, discuss what to observe along the way and make sure everyone understands their role in the procedure. There will be note takers, interviewers and observers who will also take photographs.

Familiarity Mapping

Familiarity mapping is an interactive method that can be utilised to identify and categorise the elements of functional and physical significance within a study area. At least 20 to 25 individuals may be chosen on the basis of their occupation and long-term association with the city. Respondents may be asked to narrate orally or draw a road map on which they marked all buildings and routes that they are familiar with. The result is a collection of hundreds of familiar built forms most of which were of natural, social, cultural, historic or economic importance to the residents.

Historian Interviews

Interviews with historians knowledgeable about the city area are very useful in identifying those cultural values of historic significance. Semi-structured interviews may be conducted among a minimum of three historians from well-known educational institutions in the study area. The questions may be based on historians’ general knowledge about the city and the study area in particular. The etymological descriptions of place names can also obtain from these interviews. The one-to-one conversations can be recorded and written statements will be provided by some of the historians addressing selected questions about the historic significance of the study area.

Archival Maps

Maps are often the essential sources for identifying and locating forms of significance. Archival maps can be of use to illustrate the early settlement patterns of the city, the existence of various natural features, the location of built forms, streets, roads, etc. The geographical context of the study area including the location of natural features and the early villages and streets around the historic urban centre can also be derived from old maps. Maps from the colonial era may show the locations of cantonments and the related defence infrastructure. Careful analysis of archival maps from earliest times will provide valuable information about the evolution of an urban area over the period of its existence.

Creating Freehand Architectural Drawings and Diagrams

Architecture students can be trained to observe and analyse the spatial characteristics of the built forms of the study area in order to recreate architectural freehand drawings and diagrams. This method of observing and drawing can be taught to students in workshops to impart the necessary skills. The objectives of this method include

understanding the techniques of visual representation of three-dimensional object,

learning the analytical approaches necessary for accurate rendering of architectural subjects,

studying the drawing techniques and fundamentals of building construction learned in the early years of architecture,

being able to rapidly observe and represent people and places in the environment and

appreciating the role of scale, proportion and dimensions of spaces in architectural design.

Literature Sources

Published studies, monographs and reviews are often helpful in understanding the geographic context of a historic city. They often illustrate various historical facts about the rulers, the lives of the people and the major events in the development of the urban area during the early monarchical periods. Texts from ancient literature, books by historians and travellers’ descriptions often provide descriptions of the etymology of places, the location of natural features and the succession of built forms in and around the historic urban centre. There may be religious literature that serves as sources for detailed descriptions of the physical appearance and utilisation of significant temples, the local deities and the religious festivals conducted in the study area. District gazetteers written during the early colonial era may be used as sources of physical information, political history, depiction of the people and their customs, the major forms of trade and the changing economic base of the city.

From the six ethnographic methods that have been suggested so far for this study, we selected four of these as expert-based approaches: historian interviews, consulting archival maps, creating architectural drawings and examining literature sources. Familiarity mapping is based on information obtained from residents and local people, while the urban transect walk method employs both expert-based observation and inputs from residents. The intention, therefore, is to apply a collection of methods in a historic urban area so that the significant natural and built forms of the past and the present may be identified. With suitable analysis, the various qualities of cultural value related to these natural and built forms can also be revealed.

Case Study

Tiruchirappalli City

Tiruchirappalli is one among the significant cultural cities in the history of South India. The historic urban centre of Tiruchirappalli is located in and around an age-old hillock of about 273 feet high, which is a notable feature for the city and it is located on the southern bank of the historic river Cauvery. There are two historic temples around the outcrop and one more on top of the rock. Below the hillock, religious precincts can be seen amidst commercial activities. There are many temples, mandapas and associated religious spaces all around the rock. Figure 1 shows the urban centre of Tiruchirappalli city as viewed from the age-old rock. Today, Tiruchirappalli has relatively few historic features such as the fort wall remnants, and few buildings depicting the power of the early local monarchy and a number of institutional edifices constructed during the British colonisation. Unlike many other Asian cities, there is extensive commercial development and economic growth around the religious precincts in the historic urban centre of Tiruchirapalli while keeping the historic and sacred values preserved. In spite of a number of large stores and malls reflecting globalisation, the historic flavour of the setting has been largely preserved.

Figure 1.

Source: The authors.

Study Area Delineation and Major Road Access

The spatial extent of the study area was surveyed by the researcher during his three reconnaissance trips by car of the significant precincts in and around the rock. The recon trips also helped to identify and locate main streets for both vehicular and pedestrian access to historic and religious areas around the rock. The first trip is indicated in red in Figure 2 showing the vehicular access to the religious precincts that are within the rock fort area. The second trip is shown in yellow and depicts one-way and two-way access routes around the rock fort precinct. The third trip, in blue, shows the major vehicular roads in all four directions in and around the vicinity of the rock fort precinct. The study area (outlined in red on the map) is therefore delimited by West Boulevard on the west, Sankaran Pillai street on north side, East Boulevard road on the east and Singathoppu street on the south.

Figure 2.

Source: Google maps re-edited by the authors.

The Process

Six ethnographic methods were adopted as described in the study methodology. A total of five urban transect walks were conducted along various routes from the same starting and ending points. The main guard gate has been a significant node from which all five transect walks started and ended. The first one was conducted by the researcher as the only participant. This was similar to a non-participatory observation in which very few people were interviewed. The second and third transect walks were conducted with a two-person research team including a landscape architect and a civil engineer. People were interviewed by the researcher during part of the walk with one team member taking notes while the other made photographs. Observations were recorded through photographs, field notes and diagrams.

Familiarity mapping was performed by the researcher while engaged in the transect walks. The researcher interviewed 25 people who lived and/or worked in the area and had a long-term association with the study area. People were asked to narrate orally or draw a road map in which they marked all buildings and routes that they were familiar with. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with three historians at the time of the recon visits and transect walks. One of the interviewees even provided the researcher with his own booklet about the study area. One-on-one conversations were recorded and written statements were provided by the historians about the study area along with references to various archival records and literature sources available for study.

Archival maps depicting Tiruchirappalli city were available for study in the archive section of an institutional library within the study area. The intention was to identify the settlement patterns, road layouts, river course changes, old built forms and colonial developments of the past and compare them with the present conditions in these areas. In Figure 3, Robert Orme’s old map of Trichinopoly shows the country around Tiruchirappalli with the camps and marches of the English and French troops in 1753 and 1754. This map was engraved by Thomas Jeffery, geographer. Kit chin’s general plan of the Trichinopoly fort, prepared for the defence of Tiruchirappalli against French troops in 1753, is one of the oldest maps available of the study area. Another significant document is from Trichinopoly pharaoh 1854, and includes a map engraved by J. and C. Walker and issued as plate no. 65 by Pharaoh and Company in their 1854 Atlas of Southern India. The Tiruchirappalli map of 1955 is the most recent historic map available, which shows the extent of urbanisation beyond the study area including development of cantonments after the independence of the country. A few old photographs of the study area were also available through web sources.

Figure 3.

Source: Archives.

Three workshops as part of the summer and winter programme were conducted by the researcher at a school of architecture in Tiruchirappalli (June 2017, December 2017, June 2018). A transect walk to the study area was scheduled as part of a day’s session in each of these workshops. Around 50 architecture students participated to enhance their skills in observing and rendering the visual characteristics of the built forms as architectural drawings of the rock fort area. Figure 4 show layout and section drawings made by the students on the significant built forms around the Teppakulam (temple water tank).

Figure 4.

Source: Monisha.

The significance of the Cauvery river and the related socio-economic and political changes have been related to the ancient Tamil literature known as Silapathikaram written by Ilangovadikal, a significant poet of the Chera dynasty. Quoting such sources as references in their books, many historians have emphasised the significance of Tiruchirappalli in the history of Tamil Nadu. In his book, History of Tiruchirappalli (up to 1947), T. Sundar Raj explains the etymology behind the name Tiruchirappalli. He goes on to narrate the demolition of the fort walls and the moat built during the Nayak dynasty in order to form boulevards as a means of expanding the walled city. Yet another book was written in Tamil by a school teacher turned historian, named Roosevelt. In his book, entitled En oor En Makkal (My Place, My People), he explains the etymology of place names and gives the history of the natural landscape and built forms in and around the city of Tiruchirappalli.

The District Gazetteer of Trichinopoly was written in 1907 by F. R. Hemingway and references the original District Manual of Trichinopoly of 1878, by the late Lewis Moore of the Indian Civil Service. This book was found to be a useful literature source because in its initial chapter, the author describes all physical features of the Tiruchirappalli district. The other chapters focus primarily on political history, the natural environment, the inhabitants, types of trade and the general economy of Tiruchirappalli at that time. The religious importance of Tiruchirappalli is described in Thala Varalaaru (Place History) published by the Temple Committee, located on the premises of Rock fort. Unlike other books, this one describes the religious etymology of the place with reference to its literature sources as well as discussing the significant temples, deities and religious festivals conducted in the study area.

Analysis and Results

A number of significant natural and built forms were identified by examining the information from the six ethnographic methods used in the study. Relative cultural value was assigned through a system of defined qualities specifically selected for this analysis. Table 2 lists the significant natural and built forms identified from the six ethnographic methods.

Table 2.

List of Significant Natural and Built Forms Identified from the Six Ethnographic Methods

Methods	Forms of Significance as Identified
Urban transect walk	Old fort wall, palatial gateway, temple tank, rock fort, street vendor shops, Clive’s building, palatial built forms, mosque, church, retail shops, temple gopurams, jewellery shops, restaurants, large textile shops
Familiarity mapping	Arterial roads, highways, fuelling stations, bus-stand, commercial complexes, theatres, railway stations, old educational institutions, malls, retail stores, auditoriums, church, public institutions, rock fort, river, temple tanks, large textile stores, jewellery shops, bazaar, grocery stores, memorials, banks, markets, hospitals
Historian interviews	Rocky outcrop, river, teppakulam, grand anicut, Aarkananicut, Uyyakondan canal, Uraiyur old settlement, Sira’s old school, Sirapalli old settlement, Choultries of Chola dynasty, fort walls, old moat, fort gateways, fort remains, palatial buildings, palatial pond, water connectivity systems, bathing Ghats, Choultries of Nayak dynasty, old Shala road, old roads connecting nearby towns, colonial institutions, transport nodes, churches, boulevards
Archival maps	Coleroon River, Seringham Island, Cauvery River, roads to Samiavarum, Pondicherry and Fort St. David, Chukleypollam, Weycondah, Fakirs Tope, French Rock, Sugar Loaf, Rock, Golden Rock, Five Rocks, Elimiseram, Collady Fort, Teppakulam, west gate, palace complex, fort wall, moat, Brahmin settlements, rock fort temple, east gate, settlement area, south gate, old artillery barracks, pagodas, flag staff on the rock, warrior parade, Pootoorchoultry, Pootoor parade, hospital, post office, Kutchery, collector’s bungalow, burial ground, hutting lines, Pootoor Bridge, Thennur general bazaar, Thennur mosque, Thennurchoultry, new jail, swamp, Weycondawn River, Darks Bridge, tank, Beemanaikenpolliam, cavalry hutting lines, Roman Catholic chapel, guard room parade, horse lines, mess house, public rooms, Parcherry, lending library, European barracks, solitary cells for Europeans, solitary cells for natives, European hospital, horticultural garden, bullock lines, artillery barracks, belfont, St. John’s church, brigade ground, house usually occupied by the officer commanding the division, cavalry riding school, Yedatherawoo, place of arms, battery, infantry butt, race course, road from Coimbatore, road from Madurai, road from Poodookottah
Architectural free-hand drawings/diagrams	Clive’s house, commercial buildings, temple, new buildings, Mandapa, Shrine, petrol bunk, extruded shops, Thayumanavar temple, partly demolished buildings, mosque, restaurants, watch shops, main guard gate, clinic, street vendor shops, auto stand, parking, Burma bazaar, St. Joseph’s hostel, archaeological office, Chintamani building, Nandikovil Street, Melaveedhi, Keezhaveedhi, Vadakkuveedhi, Therkuveedhi, Puthuppadi, Malaivasal, Sarukkuppaarai, MuruganKovil Street, rock cut caves, UchiPillaiyar temple, endowment building, police station, park, memorial arch, clock tower, Gandhi market, Begum Saija mosque, Biladi masjid, SornaBairavanada temple, PeriyaChetty house, Latha jewellery, Kanugamandarmeshwara temple, Angala Parameshwara temple, LKS jewellery, Periya Chettiyar house, Park Pavilion.
Literature sources	Sirappalli, Sira’s Jain school, Chitrambar, Uraiyur or Kozhiyur, weavers settlements, Enichcheri near Uraiyur, Nerivaayil, Arugankovil, UraiyurChola’s palace, Uraiyur fort, Thiruvellarai, Pallava cave temple, Cauvery River, temples, Perungudi, Paachoor, Koburappatti, stone inscriptions in Srirangam temple, stone inscriptions in temple at Uyyakondan, stone inscriptions in temple at Thiruverumbur, stone inscriptions in temple at Anthanallur, teppakulam, Amma Mandapam at Srirangam, Amma Mandapam Salai, Mangammal Darbar hall, town hall, fort gateway, rock fort—lower cave, rock fort—upper cave, Thayumanavar temple, Siramalai, Chathiram bus stand, Manikka Vinayagar temple, temple mandapas, Brahma Theertham (Teppakulam), N.S.B. road, Nandi Kovil Street, North Andaar Street, East Andaar Street, ChinnaKadai Street, Uchi Pillaiyar temple, Kodumbalur stones, ThirisSirapuram, Siragiri, Trichinopoly, Naganathar temple, Velikandanathar temple, Kasivishvanathar temple, Bairavanathar temple, Boolokanathar temple, Uraiyur Panchavarnaswamy temple, Uraiyur Nachiyamman temple, Uraiyur Vekkaliamman temple, Uyyakondan Thirumalai temple, Srirangam temple, Samayapuram temple, Thiruverumbur temple, Viralimalai temple, Yaanaimandapam, Maouna Guru—Jeevasamadhi, Noorrukkaalmandapam, Chithiramandapam, Kodimarathumandapam, Madappallivaasal, Shivite mutts, Mani mandapam, Siva mandapam, Pathinaru Kaal Mandapam, Nandi Kovil, Vanniyadi Kovil

Source: The authors.

Characteristic Forms of Significance

Around 300 natural and built forms have been identified from the six ethnographic methods of the study. Since the list was enormous, the study attempted to reduce the number by placing them into subcategories. The typical forms that characterised the cultural value of the historic urban centre were identified from the study. Following are the significant characteristic forms identified in the historic urban centre of Tiruchirappalli.

Natural Areas

Natural areas include hillocks, rocky outcrops, rivers, canals and some water systems available in or around the study area. There are a number of geological and archaeological surveys that have identified the spatial-temporal changes in river courses to reveal their existence and location in a specific area over many thousands of years. As part of the larger landscape, the position of rivers and canals in ancient times can reveal the plans and judgements of early monarchs in regard with water transportation, flood control and water management. The beauty and aesthetic quality of these natural areas is often celebrated in the local poems and ancient literature of the region. Religious literature evidently shows the sacred significance of these natural areas. Natural areas such as the rock outcrop are visually accessible from the entire settlement due to their elevated topography. Rituals and festivals are often associated with these hillocks thereby representing cultural value experiences as embedded in the life of the early people of the settlement. Figure 5 shows the Cauvery river adjacent to the study area with the ancient rock outcrop in the background.

Figure 5.

Source: The authors.

Religious Streets and Precincts

Religious streets here include the Brahmin streets, Christian priests’ sacrist, mutts and any other built forms associated with priestly activities in the historic urban centre. Sacred places are maintained with exceptional cleanliness and are usually well marked and located within the premises of a nearby religious precinct. There is normally also a visible connection that follows the street from one part of the religious precinct to another from these places as they form a significant path for processions during religious festivals. Brahmins usually live on religious streets called Agraharam. Sacrist are the places where Christian priests stay before they conduct worship services. The people who reside at these sacred places primarily perform religious duties and often devote themselves to learning and preaching religious values to lay people. They may even establish educational institutions as a means to teach religious values.

The religious precincts include temples, temple ponds, mandapas, churches, mosques and any other built forms associated with religious activities in the historic urban centre. A number of published studies describe the religious significance and the prevailing etymological beliefs about the historic urban centre and the ancient temples that have been an integral part of the peoples’ religious experience and beliefs since the earliest times. The beauty of the temple ponds and mandapas reflects the power of the early monarchs as patrons of religion and proponents of the ethical values of the time. Later, at the beginning of colonisation, when the rulers espoused other religions, a number of churches, mosques and a few other religiously based structures were built. Mosques and the associated settlement areas represent later period of the monarchy. Churches that were associated with religious and secular schools were also established during the colonial era. The post-colonial era saw the construction of more temples, mandapas, churches, mosques and other sacred spaces. Figure 6 shows a view of a temple water tank and religious precincts in the study area.

Figure 6.

Source: The authors.

Historic Buildings and Remnants

A few palatial buildings, Ghats, choultries, fortifications, dwellings cut from rock outcrops, etc., that were constructed much before the colonial era still exist as historic buildings and architectural remnants. Many historic buildings are no more and the few that remain are often ill-used and allowed to regress into a dilapidated condition. With the use of archival maps and old drawings, one can trace the location of cave dwellings cut from the living rock, old culverts, the remains of fort wall with evidence of early moats surrounding them and broken architectural elements scattered across the historic urban centre. Choultries were originally part of the city during the early monarchy, designed to house all pedestrian travellers visiting for a short stay. Choultries were often located near a water body. Ghats and the associated temples were often located adjacent to a river or water body during the early monarchy, principally for the social and functional needs of the people, but also for worship and recreation by the inhabitants of the palatial residences. A few of such structures are protected as part of city conservation planning by archaeological authorities of the country, and sometimes one sees the adaptive reuse of such historical buildings for educational and public administrative purposes and by historians and researchers who study these areas. Heritage tourism is of great economic benefit in these areas, where there are opportunities for people to experience for themselves the unique flavour of the past. Figure 7 shows a palatial gateway in the study area protected under the control of the national authorities in the Department of Archaeology.

Figure 7.

Source: The authors.

Colonial Institutions

After the arrival of colonial rule, a number of schools and office buildings were constructed in the historic urban centre for the purposes of education and housing administrative duties. The building of cantonments and military installations was also an inevitable part of colonial rule. One can see the elegant details of colonial architecture in a number of schools, colleges and many other institutions established during colonial rule. Some of these buildings in the study area are still used as part of many Christian educational institutions and a few have been tastefully modified for various commercial purposes. Figure 8 shows an old colonial institution that has been turned into a commercial venture today.

Figure 8.

Source: The authors.

Parks, Memorials and Burial Grounds

A number of bridges, parks, memorial entry arches and go-downs were constructed after the arrival of colonial rule in the historic urban centre. Workshops and go-downs were built for storage and maintenance purposes and steel bridges spanned rivers and other water systems. Parks and memorials were constructed to commemorate the arrival of the British rulers. One can often see burial grounds either near water courses or near a few religious precincts, made available separately for colonial and local people. Figure 9 shows Coronation Park, a colonial park in the study area.

Figure 9.

Source: The authors.

Markets

Many public markets were established during the colonial or post-colonial period that sold vegetables, fruit, fish and household goods both wholesale and retail for the benefit of people living in the historic city. Even before such markets were established, the santhai (local markets) and pettai (markets for agricultural products such as bullock carts) were in existence since the early days of the monarchy. They were often located outside the fortified walls of the old town and facilitated the sale of vegetables, groceries, fruits, fish, etc., between people of the walled city and the surrounding agrarian community. Later, during the colonial period, the town market was developed as a separate building complex to house all the vendors. The post-colonial period saw a flourishing of the markets with a further increase in commercial establishments near the walled city. Old illustrations and photos of these areas often show service vehicles loading and unloading various goods for the market. Even with the rapid urbanisation happening in the historic urban landscape, these markets still survive as an essential source of goods for the town and a gathering place for tourists and residents alike. Figure 10 shows the city market nearby the study area.

Figure 10.

Source: The authors.

Bazaars

Bazaars were local markets established during the post-colonial period and now are places where a variety of contemporary items such as electronic gadgets, readymade clothing, wood and metal objects, fabric and housewares are sold. The vendors also utilise international connections for the purchase of foreign goods for resale in India at a cheaper cost, thereby attracting middle- and lower middle-class families. The Burma bazaar is said to have been established during the post-colonial period by refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who originally fought for India’s freedom. A few streets where there is a good flow of pedestrian passers-by are now sites of bazaars that were established by communities of Muslims, Jains, Sikhs and others. Such bazaars often utilise modular spaces and street fronts. Figure 11 shows the bazaar in the study area.

Figure 11.

Source: The authors.

Retail Shops

During the economic growth boom following the post-colonial period, a number of small shops were established for selling jewellery, stationery, pooja items, clothing of export quality and a wide range of vegetables, fruits and spices. These shops are owned by people from early business communities who migrated from neighbouring towns. These shops often occupy space within old buildings built during the colonial or post-colonial period, but large billboards and media advertisements put up to attract customers and buildings are often modified to accommodate modern-day requirements. Figure 12 shows the retail shops in the study area.

Figure 12.

Source: The authors.

Theatres, Restaurants and Street Eateries

The post-colonial period saw the construction of a number of cinema theatres for art exhibits, plays, movies and musical entertainments that have since become inseparable parts of people’s lives. Similarly, one can find many new restaurants along the main streets of the historic urban centre. These restaurants serve the many visitors who come to such historic areas for shopping and religious festivals. Street eateries are often available during specific hours of a day or night and have become very popular places for local specialty dishes. Figure 13 shows a cinema theatre in the study area.

Figure 13.

Source: The authors.

Big-Box Stores

The term ‘big-box stores’ here refers to the large commercial ventures established during recent years. They are usually associated in complexes where many types of commercial, recreational and necessary service facilities are available under one roof for accommodating global needs. These modern facilities often extend for blocks, and feature flashy digital advertisements. Figure 14 depicts a large textile store in the study area.

Figure 14.

Source: The authors.

Public Institutions

A number of public institutions, such as police stations, libraries, the passport office, hospitals, museums, the town hall, auditoriums and offices of various departments of State and Central Government are an inevitable part of an urban area. One can see some of these places accommodated within old historic buildings such as palatial residences, but more frequently the old structures are demolished and replaced by modern architectural styles. Figure 15 shows a police station in a modified palatial building.

Figure 15.

Source: The authors.

Transportation Nodes and Networks

In the early days of the monarchy, people travelled by foot or used animal-drawn carts on the roads, but railways were built during colonial and post-colonial periods. Roads provided the necessary connections to the hinterlands from the historic town for millennia, and ancient literary sources describe historically significant routes along and across water systems connecting the nearby towns of the region. Much later, the colonial era saw the establishment of many railway stations, administrative offices, workshops and loading areas with better connections to different parts of the country. During the colonial era, the fort walls of the early city were demolished and moats were dried up to provide space for the debris of the fort walls, and wide boulevards were built. Besides facilitating scenic views, these roads paved the beginning of motorisation in the early twentieth century. Local bus stands were often located just outside the old walled city. With their proximity to a nearby river or water feature, connectivity was well established with nearby towns and cities beyond the historic urban centre. Figure 16 shows a local bus stand in the study area.

Figure 16.

Source: The authors.

Qualities of Cultural Values

Twelve characteristic forms of significance were identified as part of the study. Furthermore, a number of qualities were found to be inherent in the unique types of natural and built forms in the study area. Almost all these characteristic forms had multiple qualities of cultural value in each of these forms of significance. Cultural value was experienced in a variety of qualities in different significant forms.

The various qualities experienced as cultural values are

historical

sacred

visual

spatial

functional

physical

memorable and

sensitive.

Figure 17 shows mapping of forms of multiple qualities in the study area.

Figure 17.

Source: The authors.

Conclusion and Scope for Further Study

Table 3 is the interpolation analysis to show how multiple qualities are experienced in the built and natural areas. The 12 characteristic forms of significance have been experienced with 8types of qualities. These qualities were derived from a cultural value assessment and were located and described by residents. These qualities need to be tested further on a more sample streets within the study area. So far, the study has addressed what are the different qualities that make a place culturally valued, but how and where people experience cultural values still needs to be explored in a historic urban centre. The term cultural value experience here refers to two specific qualities. Answering the question of how people experience cultural value must focus on the qualities that are expressed by the people who are involved with this experience. It is primarily the quality of feeling that one acquires by way of their relationship with the represented cultural values of a historic urban centre. The second aspect, where such experiences are felt, is about the potential sense of place that these represented cultural values of a historic urban centre are capable of offering people.

Table 3.

Interpolation Analysis to Show How Multiple Qualities are Experienced in Forms

Forms and Qualities	Historical	Sacred	Visual	Spatial	Functional	Physical	Memorable	Sensitive
Natural areas	•	•	•	•		•	•	•
Religious streets and precincts	•	•	•	•		•	•	•
Historic buildings and remnants	•			•			•	•
Colonial institutions	•			•			•	•
Parks, memorials and burial grounds	•			•			•	•
Market	•				•			•
Bazaar and street vendors	•		•		•			•
Retail shops					•			•
Theatres, restaurants and street eateries				•	•		•	•
Big box stores			•	•	•	•	•	•
Public institutions					•	•		•
Transport nodes/network	•				•	•		•

Source: The authors.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The following personnel are acknowledged for their laudable participation during the entire process of this study. I am thankful to historians Y. Roosevelt, John Kumar and a few school teachers, Durairaj, librarian, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli for his timely help on the archival records, and a number of architects, engineers, students, business men, street vendors, etc., who wilfully cooperated in answering the queries, and the kind support from Er. Sathiyaraj, beloved wife and landscape architect Ophylia, Jeswin Samuel, family and friends.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

References

Bergeron

Julie

, Paquette

Sylvain

, Poullaouec-Gonidec

Philippe

. ‘Uncovering Landscape Values and Micro-geographies of Meanings with the Go-along Method’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 122 (February 2014): 108–21.

Brown

and Raymond

C. M.

. ‘Methods for Identifying Land Use Conflict Potential Using Participatory Mapping’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 122 (February 2014): 196–208.

Cadwallader

E.H.

The main feature of value experience. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 14, no. 3 (Fall 1980), 229.

Degen

M.M.

and Rose

. ‘The Sensory Experiencing of Urban Design: The Role of Walking and Perceptual Memory’. Urban Studies, 49, no. 15(April 2012): 3271–87.

Hemingway

F.R.

Tiruchinopoly district gazetteer. The English East India Company Government Publication, 1906.

Jokilehto

Considerations on Authenticity and Integrity. City and Time 2, no.1(2006): 1–16. http://www.ct.ceci-br.org

Mason

Randall

. ‘Assessing Values in Conservation Planning: Methodological Issues and Choices’. Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage (2002): 5–30.

Mohammad

Nik Mastura Nik

, Saruwono

Masran

, Said

Shahrul Yani

, and Hariri

Wan Ahmad Halawah Wan

. ‘A Sense of Place Within the Landscape in Cultural Settings’. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, 105 (December 2013): 506–12.

Moser

and McIlwaine

. ‘Participatory Urban Appraisal and its Application for Research on Violence’. Environment and Urbanization, 11, no. 2(2013): 203–26. doi: 10.1630/095624 799101284986.

10.

Smith

M.L.

‘The Archaeology of Urban Landscapes’. Annual Review of Anthropology, 43, no.1(2014): 307–23. doi: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-025839.

11.

Stephenson

Janet

. ‘The Cultural Values Model: An Integrated Approach to Values in Landscapes’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 84 (February 2008): 127–39.

12.

Sundarrajan

History of Tiruchirappalli upto 1947. T. Sundar Publication, 2003, p. 131.

13.

Thwaites

Experiential landscape place: exploring experiential potential in neighbourhood settings. Urban Design International, 10, no. 1(2005): 11–22.