Urbanisation at Sannati (c. 300 bc –c. 300 ad ): An Early Historic Buddhist Settlement in North Karnataka,India. A Comparative Perspective

Urbanisation and Theories of Urbanisation

Urban centres existed in nearly every civilisation, although their nature may have varied considerably. The main criterion of an urban centre is that it is involved in specialised functions with respect to a larger hinterland. The biggest urban settlements in early civilisations were the capitals of city-states and the capitals and provincial administrative centres of territorial states where population of a few thousand people could be found. People living in cities normally did not produce food. Urban settlements depended on the food stuffs produced in the nearby rural areas. Urban centres in the past were places which could be related with high-level political and administrative activities, specialised craft production, marketing, foreign trade, higher education, artistic and cultural milestones, show of splendour, governance and religious rituals. Development of cities has been encouraged by the upper classes who liked to use them to meet their personal and collective goals. The upper classes preferred to live in cities as it gave them access to all the goods and services which they may have required. Further, living in cities helped them in managing specialised activities in such a way which only enhanced their power and position. ¹

It is interesting to note that through the centuries, human societies have witnessed substantial changes in their social order. Almost ten thousand years ago, human beings lived in small, itinerant groups which survived on wild plants and animals. Mostly the hunting groups would domesticate local plant and animal species, which would eventually lead to a way of life associated with farming. The agrarian way of life contributed to greater sedentarism and an expansion in population and very often migration and trade would help in the spread of agriculture in new territories. After some time, many of the farming societies got transformed into much larger, more complex social structures marked by cities, states and class differences. This may be regarded as the process of cultural evolution. The Neolithic settlements were more densely populated in comparison to the largely hunting or food-gathering societies and showed more dependence on agriculture. The Neolithic population density was not so much about town concentration and was closer to small villages, which were spread all over the land. During the period between 6000 and 4000 bc certain developments such as the use of ox-driven plough, wheeled cart, sailboat, beginning of metals, irrigation and domestication of new plants led to an increased production and a marked improvement in technology. Whenever this technology was used in new areas, which were suitable for human occupation the result was a stable economy which produced conditions for the creation of urban layout, that is, concentration of people in one place, and these people generally would not grow their own food. Besides a sound economy, establishment of urban centres required a social organisation in which a certain strata could appropriate a part of the produce for themselves. This strata which comprised state officials, traders, clergy and artisans would live in towns and cities and not necessarily in villages as their power did not require them to be ‘present on the land per se’. Their life in town would give them a sense of power over the cultivators. ² It seems that urban centres originated independently in different parts of the world. The areas in which independent civilisations originated appear to have been characterised by several specialised micro-environments for which different equally specialised subsistence sources were suitable. The existence of inter-dependent zones of this type promoted the formation of ‘symbiotic regions’ within which the complementary distribution of subsistence products could be effected. Perhaps, it was to deal with this new order of complexity that writing systems were invented or further developed. This in turn contributed towards administrative complexity and lent formality and continuity to urban institutions. The personnel and facilities of the urban institutions stimulated the development of major settlements in which they were located. ³

It is commonly held that the process of urbanisation meant a complete transformation of social institutions and practices. Kings with actual power came into being for the first time and this was accompanied by institutions of governance and social divisions. As urbanisation gained in depth and progressed further, economic activity also grew and cities emerged as a very obvious indication of the process. Gordon Childe (1950) used the term ‘urban revolution’ to refer to this interlinked series of changes that led to the development of complex, state-level societies. Gordon Childe was responsible for substantially synthesising archaeological data on the earliest states and cities and his theory was a major contribution to scholarship in the mid-twentieth century. It would be appropriate to infer that Gordon Childe’s model provided the basis for almost all subsequent conceptualisation of various theories on the birth and functioning of the earliest states and cities. ⁴ Many scholars maintain that a society must have a surplus of food-stuffs before the rise of a city. Improved agricultural technology particularly the plough, the wheeled cart and irrigation resulted in the production of surplus for the Bronze Age society which could support the artisans, especially full-time specialists in metal crafts and other non-food-producing population of the city including temple priests, attendants and administrators. This kind of accumulation, in the opinion of Childe was a ‘precondition for the growth of the village into a city’. In the city, the accumulation of surplus was restricted to a narrow class which eventually divided the society into classes. ⁵

The role of cities in early civilisations has been to perform specialised functions vis-à-vis a largely agricultural and comparatively undifferentiated hinterland. However, it is important that we first identify the benchmarks of urbanisation. Gordon Childe stressed on a series of inter-related social, economic, political and cultural changes that gave birth to earliest states and cities and these could be clearly differentiated from older or contemporary villages. According to Gordon Childe, there are ten criteria for early states. All the ten abstract criteria can be located in the archaeological data. The ten major traits of urbanisation are as follows: (a) in terms of size the first cities must have been more expansive and more thickly populated than any previous settlements (b) in composition and work, the urban segments already differed from pre-existing village … full-time specialist craftsmen, transport workers, traders, officials and clergy (c) peasant produced and paid over the little surplus that he could barely manage with his still very simple technical equipment as tithe or tax to an imaginary deity or a divine king who appropriated and stored the surplus (d) striking monumental public structures not only distinguish each known city from any village but also indicate the concentration of social surplus (e) but naturally priests, civil and military leaders and the administration consumed a substantial share of the concentrated surplus and thus constituted a ‘ruling class’ (f) script (g) the development of exact and predictive sciences—arithmetic, geometry and astronomy (h) art (i) foreign trading network (j) state. The ten criteria offered by Gordon Childe were meant to understand urbanisation of the Bronze Age cultures of the ancient period. However, the traits enumerated by him were not acceptable to all the scholars who maintained that it was a mixed bag of characteristics. He had called the emergence of cities an ‘urban revolution’, to which many scholars such as Sjoberg (1960), Mumford (1961), Robert McC. Adams (1966), Glyn Daniel, had objected. The term ‘urban revolution’ indicated some kind of suddenness. In the opinion of Childe ‘… The word “revolution” must not of course be taken as denoting a sudden, violent catastrophe, it is here used as for the culmination of progressive change in the economic structure and social organization …’. ⁶ There is a debate among scholars about the factors and conditions which facilitate the rise of urban centres. Sjoberg (1960) attributed a large role to the political factor in the establishment of cities. In his opinion ‘large scale economic enterprise is highly dependent on an effective power structure…. Nowhere do cities, even commercial ones, flourish without direct or indirect support of a well-established state system’. Similarly, Mumford believed ‘the most important agent in effecting the change from a decentralised village economy to a highly organised urban economy was the king or rather, the institution of kingship’. Robert McC. Adams (1966) maintained that the transformation at the core of the urbanisation lay in the realm of social organisation. For the most part, changes in social institutions precipitated changes in technology, subsistence, and other aspects of the wider cultural realm, rather than vice versa. A. Ghosh (1973) was of the opinion that kingship itself, a political system, was the result of an economic system that had developed in the early days of the Bronze Age. The technological and economic background that made it possible must be given due consideration. In his opinion no city, in a non-totalitarian state can live without a supporting merchant class. ⁷

Geographical Layout

The state of Karnataka is a tableland, located in the angle where the Eastern and Western Ghats ranges converge into the group of the Nilgiri hills. The west, south and east, seems to be enclosed by chains of mountains, on whose shoulders the plateau constituting Karnataka lies. Karnataka can be broadly divided between forested Malnad in the west and the more flat territory of the Maidan in the east with sharp transition in some places. ⁸ Sannati is located in North Karnataka, which is mostly drained by the river Krishna and its various tributaries. Krishna is a perennial river with a rough and stony bed and has few islands in it. One of the major tributaries of the river Krishna is the Bhima. Sannati is situated on the right bank of Bhima. North Karnataka is a plateau covered with fertile black cotton soil. The general elevation is about 600 m with broad flat bottomed valleys ranging up to 400 m. Southern half of the area lies on Peninsular Gneiss with NNW-SSE belts of Dharwar schist. To the north of Dharwar and Peninsular Gneisses, sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone and mudstone of Cuddapah formations are seen in a continuous line in the west and Kurnool formations in the east. The remaining area is overlain with Deccan trap. ⁹ The region is geologically rich as made evident by the large number of ancient metal workings. These comprise both old iron and gold workings, including the famous Hutti gold mines situated in the Maski band of Dharwar schist rocks. The region of North Karnataka is fertile and therefore quite suitable for agriculture. Furthermore, the area is drained by rivers, such as the Krishna, Bhima, Tungabhadra and their various tributaries and this helps in irrigating the land. These rivers must have also helped with transport and communication as well as internal trade. Rivers also promoted exchange of ideas. It is important to note that Sannati and Maski are situated on the banks of river Bhima and close to Maski nullah (a tributary of Tungabhadra), respectively.

Sannati

Sannati seems to have been a flourishing settlement of the early historic period. A notable feature of Sannati and Kanaganahalli are the structures with Buddhist affiliation. Stupas, chaityas, Ayaka pillars have been recorded. Furthermore, many sculptured slabs and exquisite sculptures, mostly with Buddhist themes have been collected. Religious movements such as Buddhism are known to have encouraged both religious architecture and sculptures. ¹⁰ This hypothesis is fully borne by the evidence from Sannati. It is a possibility that Buddhism was brought by the Mauryas whose inscriptions have been found, and it received support from the local communities and soon it had its own followers. In this context, it is important to note that a large number of inscriptions belonging to second century ad are donative in character. They mention the names of Buddhist devotees and donors including officials such as the minister and superintendent of records. These donations must have been crucial for the members of the monastic order who did not engage themselves directly in any productive activity. These donations would have supported Buddhist structures, sculptures and other paraphernalia. For example, a donation of encasement of veneering slab was made by householder Tokhi from Mahiseka along with his wife, son, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, kinsmen and daughter during the 16th reignal year of king Siri Chimuka Satavahana (corresponds to 36 bc as per the shorter chronology arrived by Ajay Mitra Shastri). Similarly, a gift of the uppermost (agatuka pata) and its line was made by the nun Dharmasri of the Kotujila family during the 35th reignal year of king Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi along with her parents, all the preceptors, group of elders and the co-aestics for the well-being and happiness of all beings/creatures (corresponds to 126 ad as per the shorter chronology). ¹¹ Perhaps it was the local-level elite who supported the Buddhist clergy and also provided resources needed for running the state machinery. This elite must have derived its sustenance from land and exploitation of mineral wealth as the region is both suitable for agriculture and endowed with minerals. There are many explored sites in the region which might have been villages engaged in agricultural activity and generating surplus, which was collected by the elite, who were probably the landowners. Proximity to the river Bhima and usage of Satavahana coins must have facilitated trading relations with other adjoining regions. It is a possibility that the fine pottery including the Rouletted ware, beads of semi-precious stones and terracottas of fine workmanship were meant for the wealthier sections of the society. It seems that the affluent classes were not very secure particularly with respect to the surrounding areas and therefore constructed defensive structures like the fortification wall at Ranamandala.

It seems that Buddhism had dedicated followers who donated towards Buddhist structures and other paraphernalia. Here, it is interesting to note that Buddhist structures and sculptures show similarity with their counterparts from other Buddhist sites at Amaravati, Bhattiprolu and Nagarjunakonda. Besides Buddhism, Brahmanism had its own following as hinted at by the inscriptions and sculptures. A label inscription datable to first–second century ad and executed in Brahmi script was found on the limestone pillar of a vihara. It mentions that a son of minister performed yajnas. Fragmentary sculptural remains of a Yaksha were recorded with a neck ornament having Gaja-Lakshmi motif in the pendant. Hence, one may surmise that Sannati was a well-known Buddhist centre with rich and heterogeneous society. The presence of Satavahana coins and inscriptions is an indication that Sannati was a part of the Satavahana Empire in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Sannati was a settlement which was spread across almost 80 ha and had a fortification wall nearly 2 km in length, 12–13 m wide at the base and 4–4.5 m at the top and rises to an average height of 6.5 m on the outer side and 3–4 m on the inner side. The fortification had three wide and huge entrances probably with bastions leading towards surrounding settlements at Benagutti in the north, the stupa at Anegutti on the north-northeast and ultimately to the site of Mahastupa at Kanaganahalli. The fortification wall was elevated with the help of burnt bricks, limestone pebbles and gravel. The area enclosed by the fortification wall was known as Ranamandala. It appeared to be a residential area as indicated by the archaeological remains recorded in the course of excavation. The site of Mahastupa was the nearby hamlet of Kanaganahalli. It was the north-eastern suburb of Sannati, at the centre of which stood the fortified township of Ranamandala and was surrounded by stupas and monasteries located at Anegutti, Benagutti and Hasargundgi. Anegutti was the stupa site nearly 2 km northeast of Sannati village. Benagutti was an elevated mound. Hasargundgi was located on the right bank of river Bhima. Excavation revealed a highly disturbed circular brick stupa enclosed by a limestone railing. The location of Sannati-Kanaganahalli, the surrounding settlements mostly with Buddhist remains seem to constitute a landscape which was expansive, had a strong hinterland and which may be regarded as urban. The tangible remains of the Mahastupa at Kanaganahalli, the sculptures and the donatory inscriptions establish Sannati as a known Buddhist centre. Kanaganahalli (Sannati) is the site of Maha-stupa, also referred to as adholoka maha-chaitya (the great stupa of the netherworld). The stupa was built in limestone. The stupa measures nearly 22 m in diameter at the railing and 17 m in height. The stupa appears to have witnessed more than one phase of construction from the Mauryan, through the early Satavahana and later Satavahana period and this can be dated from the third century bc to third century ad. The Mahastupa was richly embellished (except the dome) and these embellishments give insights in the steady change from Hinayana into Mahayana philosophy. The sculptures executed on the lower drum slabs can be attributed to the first phase of the early Satavahana period. In this phase, Hinayana philosophy was predominant and Buddha was venerated in symbolic forms. The themes executed in the panels can be broadly divided into three categories: (a) episodes describing the events of the life of Buddha; (b) select Jataka stories and (c) portrait sculptures of Satavahana and other kings. Buddha and various facets of his life are manifested in sculptures. Buddha was worshipped in the form of ornate, non-ornate stupa, lion, horse, vajrasana with pada, dharmachakra in railing, vriksha chaitya, buddhapada, triratna, jataka tales of the previous birth of Buddha and stories about his life, all shown in the hinayana symbolic forms. Dharmachakra in Buddhist art signifies the setting of wheel of righteousness by the Buddha in the deer park of Sarnath. It is one of the commonly depicted themes at the stupa. The Mahayana phase of Buddhism found expression in the seated and standing Buddha sculptures in Dharmachakra pravartana mudra. In this context, it is important to note that two huge 2.40 m tall standing Buddha images were recorded over the southern and western ayaka platforms. The rise of Mahayana Buddhism and its canonical victory over Hinayana led to the making of the sculptures of Buddha either in standing or in seated posture. Images of Buddha were being produced around second century ad as the Mathura and Gandhara schools of art began preparing such images. A total of ten seated sculptures of Buddha were recorded in the course of excavations at the Mahastupa complex. Labelled portrait relief sculptures of royal personalities included rulers of the Mahajanapada of Magadha, namely Mahagovinda and Udayana. Asoka was represented twice. Along with the royalty and nobility, common people were also shown in sculptural renderings. Sculptured slabs included many animals such as tiger, elephant, horse and deer. Interestingly, many of the animal representations have wings. There is a unique figure with a human face but the body of a lion or a tiger and a pair of wings. This could be due to Hellenistic influence. A total of 270 inscriptions were recorded at Kanaganahalli. Most of the inscriptions give details of the donations made towards the embellishment of the stupa in the form of slabs, umbrellas, flower receptacle and other architectural members. It is interesting that several donations were made by people who had come from places outside Karnataka such as Bhokardan, Dhanyakataka, Mahishaka, Kupana, Vakaticha and Pitalkhora. Thus, it appears that Sannati-Kanaganahalli was a famous Buddhist centre which not only had local following but attracted visitors from various places outside North Karnataka.

Urbanisation at Sannati: Contribution of Outside Powers

Urbanisation in Karnataka was the result of a complex engagement of various factors—economic, social, political, religious and ecological. To have a proper understanding of this interaction it should be viewed in relation to the antecedent cultures. These cultures continued as ‘non-urban’ forms into the early historic period when urbanisation was very much underway. The large number of Iron Age megalithic sites point towards growth of population which seem to have coincided with the expansion of settlements from the highland peripheral areas to the fertile deltaic plains and with the change from a pastoral-cum-subsistence economy to a largely agrarian one. Increased population demanded increased use of such lands, which could provide a higher surplus-yielding crop such as paddy. Thus, by the end of the proto-historic period certain developments had clearly taken place. These include an increase in population, a shift to the fertile plains, establishment of an agrarian economy based on paddy cultivation, rudimentary craft specialisation, a developing exchange network, a degree of social differentiation and the emergence of spheres of political influence.

By the close of the first millennium bc there was a definite increase in the construction of big structures in South India and this development appears to have been influenced by the political and ideological situation in Northern India. ¹² In South Asia, cities emerged for the first time in the third millennium bc and came to an end and were seen again nearly a thousand years later in the Gangetic plain. This development is known as ‘second urbanisation’ which was largely limited to North India and which clearly took place before the establishment of cities and complex political organisation in Deccan and South India. Settlements in Deccan have given clear evidence for relations with states, empires and religious institutions of the north. By about 600 bc certain common material elements could be identified in the Gangetic plains. These comprised increasingly frequent use of iron, beginning of cast copper and punch-marked silver coins, use of baked brick, establishment of cities and building of huge defensive structures surrounding many cities. During this period a distinctive pottery, the northern black polished ware (NBPW) along with the painted grey ware (PGW) was in circulation. It is important to note that the NBPW is mostly found in the Gangetic sites though a small quantity can be seen as more widely distributed. It was around 600 bc that heterodox movements such as Buddhism got more consolidated. A major development that took place in the Gangetic plain was that Mahajanapadas came into being mostly from eighth to sixth centuries bc. The Mahajanapada of Magadha emerged stronger as compared with other Mahajanapadas between the sixth and fourth centuries bc and was looked upon as an empire.

The Mauryan state may be regarded as the first major empire in the Indian sub-continent. The Mauryan empire was spread across almost all over northern India and the Deccan. However, there is every possibility that the imperial control was not very strong and uniformly effective through the empire. ¹³ Asoka had both Major and Minor rock edicts in the region of Deccan. The Raichur Doab and its peripheral zones connected Northern Deccan and the rich hinterland of far South. It seems that Asoka was aware of the geo-political significance of the area. The Raichur Doab and the surrounding area was rich in agriculture and mineral wealth. Arthashastra of Kautilya refers to Dakshinapatha and its diamond and gold mines, pearls and conch fisheries and many flourishing marts. There is evidence for old workings of gold at Hutti, Maski, Cuddapah and Kurnool districts. Rich deposits of iron have been located between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and precious stones could be easily collected in the alluvium of river Krishna. ¹⁴ The mineral wealth of Deccan must have been of crucial importance for the economy and defence of the Mauryan empire. The trade relations promoted the penetration of Buddhism in Deccan including Karnataka. This penetration was accompanied by the growth of related architecture. ¹⁵

The discovery of a stele with major and separate rock edicts of Asoka at Sannati and sculptural representation of Asoka showing him as propagating Buddhism is strongly indicative of the presence of Mauryas in this region. A granite stone with typical Mauryan polish and bricks with the dimensions 54×27×9 and 47×24×08 cm were recorded at Ranamandala during explorations. Excavations at Ranamandala led to the recovery of fragmentary ivory pieces of a chhatra, finial and a circular vedi bandha of a miniature stupa forming part of votive offerings and a few terracotta figurines. Some pieces of NBPW and a circular medallion (disc stone) with the relief of standing mother goddesses flanked by palm trees and various animals with Mauryan affinity were collected. Furthermore, a layer belonging to the Mauryan period gave evidence of polished stone mullers, pounders, stone block, beads on terracotta and semiprecious stones, arrow heads and points on ivory along with red and black slipped ware. In the first phase, the fort was built by cutting a moat and heaping the earth to the requisite height as a wall. This first phase has been assigned to the Mauryan period. ¹⁶ The pre-Satavahana levels at the stupa are indicated by the recovery of a single piece of NBPW and a silver punch-marked coin. A damaged polished sandstone sculpture of a lion capital was recorded at the stupa site at west. Even with mutilation, it exhibited some similarity with the lion capital from Bharhut. It is a possibility that the lion was placed over a huge pillar and oriented towards the fortified habitation site of Sannati. The sculpture was made of coarse grained sandstone which is not locally available. The lion can be seen clearly till the shoulders but the head and body are completely disfigured. It has four rows of tufts in its mane. In comparison to the sculpture from Bharhut, the neck of the lion at Kanaganahalli is short and stout. It also exhibits typical shine and lustre that is achieved by polishing. ¹⁷ According to K.V. Ramesh and I. K. Sarma Sannati may have been an important fortified town and southern regional headquarters of the Mauryan empire. The discovery of major rock edicts and the identification of Mauryan level in the excavation of the stupa at Kanaganahalli, Ranamandala and the earthen rampart at Sannati give strong indications of Mauryan presence in and around Sannati. ¹⁸ Asoka can be seen in the sculptural representation in the upper drum of the stupa and has the legend Raya Asoka. The Ramagrama stupa was exhibited at this chaitya on two drum slabs and on the pilaster of an ornate lower drum slab. One of the veneered sculptures of the lower drum also shows a naga-entwined stupa being adored by a king who could be the Mauryan emperor himself. ¹⁹ . According to the Ceylonese chronicle Mahavamsa, the third Buddhist Council (Maha-sanghiti) was held in 250 bc at Pataliputra under his patronage and under the chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa. After the council, several missionaries were sent to spread Dharma in different regions. Famous missionaries Mulakadeva, Sahadeva, Kassapagotta and Majjhima (Madhyma) were sent to the Himalayan region under the leadership of Dundubhissara (Dundubhisvara). All these teachers have been portrayed in six registers of three panels, respectively, followed by the panel of Mauryan emperor Asoka. ²⁰

The Mauryas ventured into Karnataka and this lateral expansion could have been motivated by the presence of natural resources. The imperial Mauryas and later the Satavahanas seem to have accelerated the process of urbanisation in North Karnataka. These outside powers needed sources in abundance to support the ruling classes, non-food-producing urban groups, the bureaucracy and the armed forces. These states usually did not have enough sources to satisfy the ever-growing demands of the ruling classes and their subjects. Territorial annexation was generally undertaken to strengthen the resource base. This territorial expansion was generally sought in the raw material producing areas, the trade routes, exchange centres, fertile tracts and areas with high population concentration. The region of Deccan was extremely lucrative. According to the Arthasastra of Kautilya, the southern trade route leading to areas producing an abundance of conch shells, diamonds, rubies, pearls and gold was profitable. This route passed through area having mines. In this context, it is pertinent to note that the provincial capital of the Mauryas was at Suvarnagiri (‘gold mountain’) located in the gold-rich Mysore area. There are six Asokan rock edicts near the ancient gold mines. ²¹ The provincial headquarters with viceroys, who were mostly members of the royal family, that is, the Kumaras and the Aryaputras, were established to administer control over such areas and utilise their resources. In fact, a section of the Mauryan bureaucracy, comprising mahamatras, rajukas, pradesikas and the dhammamahamattas were expected to undertake periodic tours. It is difficult to assess the extent of Mauryan control in Karnataka. Though the archaeological evidence about the Mauryas is not very extensive but their inscriptions are indicative of their presence. It appears that Asoka relied upon different measures to maintain peace on which the productivity and utility of the area depended. In this context, the introduction of Buddhism seems to have benefitted the newly established state. Buddhism emphasised on duties, obligations and various such moral teachings. Some of the other measures adopted by Asoka included the royal tours, the erection of edicts in uniform script and language, the establishment of the bureaucratic apparatus along with the office of the dhammamahamattas. ²²

The main concern of the Mauryas was apparently with collection of revenue and not so much with creation of new resource bases or reconstituting of the existing ones. Hence, it is possible that organisation of labour as it prevailed in the megalithic period was adapted to suit imperial demands. It appears that Mauryas had limited resources and inadequate manpower which compelled them to create a ‘chain of command’ in which the local chiefs played a crucial role. In fact, these chiefs acted as vital links for they appropriated the surplus from the local producers and sent it across to the outside states through the provincial governments and commercial channels. These chiefs apparently had a semi-autonomous status in return for ‘homage and tribute’ to the Mauryas. In other words, chiefs who were already in control of certain ‘pockets’ came to be associated with the provincial government of the Mauryas. It seems that the administration of the Mauryas was essentially supervisory and was restricted to the upper levels. However, the Mauryan rule was useful in the long run for the establishment of provincial government and the association of the local chieftains in the subordinate position gave birth to a better defined ruling stratum soon after the withdrawal of the Mauryas. ²³ There is no denying that Mauryan expansion into Karnataka encouraged developments and perhaps introduced certain new features such as Brahmi script, and currency. The momentum provided by the Mauryas became truly effective because of the definite structural changes in the preceding phase, which enabled the society to accept new ideas. Under the Mauryas and later on the Satavahanas the local-level elite cultivated a sense of familiarity with the state machinery which seemed to have helped them in exercising authority over resources and subjects.

Another external factor that strengthened the ruling class was the Roman trade. Roman trade was flourishing in the early centuries of the Christian era and contributed towards the wealth and prosperity of settlements located in coastal areas, such as Banavasi in Uttara Kannada (formerly known as North Canara). Early Byzantine gold coins were found at Akki Alur in district Dharwar. Besides these coins, three coins of early Roman kings also came to light. The coins of the early Byzantine rulers can be placed in the fifth and sixth centuries ad and thus this hoard extends the date of Roman activity in Karnataka up to sixth century ad. ²⁴

Urbanisation at Sannati: A Comparative Perspective

The early historic settlements in North Karnataka as compared to the urban centres in the middle Ganga plains and the Deccan seem to be rich in tangible remains and permanent structures. The settlements were located in the vicinity of rivers which would have helped in cultivation and production of surplus which was required for the subsistence of non-food-producing urban groups such as the skilled craftsmen, bureaucrats, royalty, clergy and armed forces. The middle Ganga plain and the area of North Karnataka were fertile and quite capable of producing the surplus. Further, rivers must have aided transport and communication as well as exchange of merchandise. In this context, it is crucial to note that most of the major early historic settlements in North Karnataka were situated close to rivers such as Sannation the Bhima, Maski on the Maski nullah (a tributary of Tungabhadra), Brahmagiri and Chandravalli close to Chinnahagari, Banavasi close to Varada. Similarly, Kosambi was located on Yamuna, Rajghat and Agiabir on Ganga thereby testifying to the importance of being located on rivers. There are some features, which are common to these sites. The structures found included permanent buildings mostly constructed with burnt bricks and set in mortar and these were certainly an advance over the wattle and daub structures. The permanent structures included residential houses, ring wells, reservoirs alongside fortification walls, moat which would have provided protection from floods and attacks of enemies. Some of the structures such as soakage pits, drains are indicative of the fact that hygiene was being maintained by people. Religious architecture included stupas and monasteries, which have been located at various settlements. The construction of nearly similar structures may be regarded as a tentative indication of exchange of ideas between the two regions. Early historic settlements were well provided in tangible remains comprising pottery, tools and implements, ornaments particularly beads, terracottas, sculptures, coins, inscriptions and so on. Pottery recorded was mostly wheel made. The main early historic ware in North Karnataka was the Russet-coated kaolin painted ware whereas in the Gangetic plains it was the NBPW which was perhaps one of the deluxe wares of the period. Iron tools and implements were now in commonly used as they were quite effective in agriculture, which was becoming progressively an important source of sustenance. Iron weapons such as socketed arrowheads, socketed iron spearheads from Champa were indications of the use of iron in defence. Iron deposits have been discovered close to the Ganga plains in Chota Nagpur plateau and also in Northern Karnataka as suggested by the old iron workings. Districts Bijapur, Raichur and Bellary in North Maidan are rich in iron ore deposits. The art of ornament making particularly beads was quite advanced and gave insights into the aesthetic sense that people of this age seem to have developed. Copper and silver coins were in circulation in the middle Ganga plains and copper, lead and potin coins of the Satavahanas, Maharathis, Anandas show that currency was very much in regular use and there was a standardised medium of exchange which must have aided local trading activities. In this context, it is important to note that Roman coins may have been used in external trade. In the early centuries of Christian era the use of script had become widespread as manifested by the inscriptions that were in use in the administrative tasks, trading activity, religious donations and so on. It would be appropriate to infer that the material culture of early historic period in North Karnataka was comparable in many ways to the settlements located in the Gangetic plain and Deccan. The beginning of urbanisation was discernible from the size and location of the settlements, permanent structures, complex edifices, currency, writing, art and aesthetics. The settlement of Sannati in North Karnataka can be regarded as urban as it seems to have met most of the yardsticks of urbanisation.

Conclusion

The developments in early historic period in Karnataka had reached a stage where they could be regarded as urban. An important symbol of urbanisation is the city. Normally a city is considered to be a socio-economic entity which is distinct from the surrounding rural areas and as relying on agricultural surplus which became possible because of the use of metal technology. The progress from simple food production meant for self-consumption to an economy which was vibrant and benefitted from manufacture and external trade would be among the essential prerequisites for urban growth. Other features of urbanisation include an increase in population, establishment of political and social system, the evidence of writing, monumental art, growth in the knowledge of exact and predictive sciences and so on. ²⁵ Most of these features can be located in Karnataka in the early centuries of the Christian era. Sannati seems to have been an established Buddhist centre which was expansive and spread over a huge area encompassing the habitation, the area of pilgrimage and was surrounded by perhaps relatively small religious shrines which may have had some association with the Mahastupa at Kanaganahalli. It would be appropriate to conclude that Sannati and the surrounding settlements constituted an urban landscape that was at par with other early historic urban settlements in the Deccan and the middle Ganga plain in the North and was also perhaps the most renowned religious settlement in Karnataka.