Abstract
The village communities of Goa, like their counterparts in Karnataka, performed an important function. They provided the spiritual and material bases for the process of state formation. The kings selected the Brahmanas as the spiritual and secular beneficiaries and gave land grants to them. On the one hand, they went a long a way in legitimising the position of the king and creating a material basis essential for state formation, a continuous process that involved not only political but also socio-economic processes. Land grants to the Brahmanas ensured social stability and order as the Brahmanas could provide the spiritual strength to the king and encourage the Sudra peasants to respect the state orders. On the other hand, they ensured agricultural production and maintenance of the irrigational projects. Interestingly, the Portuguese continued the policy of the Hindu kings by establishing a close relationship with the Brahmanas, at least in the initial years of their rule. This article shows the spiritual and material bases of the village communities of Goa. It contends that along with the process of state formation in Goa, there was an increase in the number of village communities.
Introduction
Modern Goa, situated on the western coast of India, represents an amalgamation of various cultures, Indian and Western. The village communities have played a notable role in the Goan rural society and economy, compelling the Portuguese government to retain this system at least up to sixteenth century. 1 Even today, the village communities, named gaonkari or communidades remain as a major institution of Goa, exhibiting its importance. It is vital to analyse its origin and expansion. Over a period of 1,000 years, roughly from the tenth century to the present, the village communities of Goa have experienced notable modifications as the political powers such as the Kadambas, the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Vijayanagara and the Portuguese have ruled this region. 2
Since the ancient times, India comprised different forms of land ownership. 3 First, there was the communal ownership of land, as represented by the village community system of Goa. However, this institution also emerged in other regions of India. 4 Northern Karnataka, a neighbouring region of Goa, comprised such village communities. For example, there were the Brahmana settlements called agraharas, which organised themselves into the mahajanas comprising the Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical population. 5 The Brahmanas obviously needed the support of the Sudra artisans such as blacksmiths, carpenters and others to repair the agricultural implements essential for agricultural production. Agricultural production was the major economic activity of the village communities, as they formed an important part of the rural economy. However, in the case of Karnataka, the communities called mahajanas expanded into the urban centres. In actuality, they also established their own trade guilds as found in the case of Ayyavole 500, which operated in not only Karnataka but also other parts of South India. 6 The mahajanas of Karnataka also acted as the royal agents, registering the sale and purchase of land and maintaining these records in the form of inscriptions. As in Karnataka, in Goa also, we have references to the agraharas and the mahajanas, who played similar roles. However, in Goa, the mahajanas acted as the managers of the temples and their property.
The second type of land ownership that prevailed in ancient India was the individual ownership, comprising large and small landlords who possessed their own plots of land or estates. 7 They managed this land and paid taxes to the state as per the prevailing legal provisions. In addition, the kings also possessed their own land. The kings gave land grant out of their land bank and by purchasing land from other landowners. The attempt of this article is to analyse the role of the village communities including the Brahmanas in the state formation. It is important to comprehend the relationship between the pre-Portuguese developments in Goa and northern Karnataka to comprehend the changes that took place in the agrarian system of this region.
Historiography
Previously, scholars have discussed regarding the history of Goa. However, not many studies have discussed the village communities, particularly in the pre-Portuguese period. Among the earlier scholars, Baden-Powell 8 and Xavier 9 deserve attention. Baden-Powell was a British scholar who wrote with the view to satisfy the demands of the colonial rule, even though one can find the ryotwari system in the Madras Presidency, thereby showing that village community system did not exist in all parts of India. In coastal Karnataka, one is not able to find considerable pieces of evidence of village communities found in Goa and northern Karnataka. However, despite a few lapses, the work of Baden-Powell becomes important, as it has provided a translation of Afonso Mexia’s Foral of 1526, which discussed the basic rules of the village communities. The works of F. N. Xavier are important, as he has shown the need to preserve this ancient institution. He seems to suggest that in the past, village communities existed not only in Goa but also in other parts of South India like Tamil Nadu. However, various Portuguese and Goan scholars have shown the merits and demerits of this system. Nevertheless, they have accepted that village communities formed an important feature of the Goan culture.
Moraes discussed the relevant inscriptions that provide information regarding the village communities of Goa. However, due to the general nature of his work, he has not provided deeper insight regarding this issue. 10 Kosambi 11 analysed the nature of village communities, and he identified signs of feudalism in them. To some extent, one may accept his argument as the data show that there was the emergence of the exploitative relationship between the landlord and the tenant in Goa. One can note such relationship even in the nineteenth century. De Souza has given essential information regarding the village communities of Goa. His work is useful to locate the Portuguese sources that particularly deal with the post-sixteenth-century period. 12 However, he did not deal with the pre-Portuguese period.
According to Vanjari, 13 the village communities represented feudalism. Gomes analysed the history of the Goan village communes and made an exhaustive study of this institution, particularly in the Portuguese period. His work shows the need to appreciate the indigenous records while discussing the origin of the gaonkari, a local name used to refer to the village community. 14
The essay of Axelrod and Fuerch is significant in this context as they have analysed the probable origin and growth of the village communities of Goa mostly based on the Portuguese and British sources. The major aim of this work was to identify the differences between the British and Portuguese representation of the Goan villages. They argue that in the process, the British and the Portuguese have undermined the ‘human agency’, which is actually represented in the indigenous traditions. 15 It is true that these scholars have analysed the Brahmanical tradition found in the ‘Sahyadri Khanda’, which has been used by Kosambi and others to show the domination of the Brahmanas in this region. Nevertheless, it is important to study the inscriptions, apart from ‘Sahyadri Khanda’, to analyse the nature of the Brahmana settlements of Goa. However, Axelrod and Fuerch highlighted the possible errors that appeared in the work of Baden-Powell, who represented British colonialism. In addition, Axelrod and Fuerch show the essence of the Goan village communities and the rights possessed by the gaonkars, the leaders of the gaonkari. At the same time, it is important to note that they did not utilise the data from the inscriptions to study the village communities of Goa and the neighbouring regions. Recently, Xavier and Zupanov have shown the close relationship between the Brahmanas and the Portuguese state, thereby demonstrating the continuity between the pre-Portuguese and Portuguese periods. 16 One needs to note that some of the institutions that existed in the pre-Portuguese period continued to exist in the Portuguese period, albeit with some modifications.
The major sources for this work are the inscriptions, Mexia’s Foral of 1526 and the works available in Portuguese published in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The inscriptions are important because they show the continuity and discontinuity between the ancient and medieval social institutions such as the gaonkari system. The modern comunidades of Goa represent the continuation of the traditional principles of the medieval village communities. The study of the Portuguese sources would show the changes that took place in the gaonkari system.
State and the Village Communities: Conceptual Framework
It is also important to discuss a few conceptual issues with reference to the relationship between state and society in South Asia. According to Karl Marx, in India, there was a lack of relationship between the political superstructure and the social base. 17 By implication, he supported the theory of oriental despotism, ostensibly due to the influence of the British colonial sources. However, scholars have questioned this argument. Louis Dumont argued that the state served the Brahmanas, the religious authority. 18 Chattopadhyaya, however, shows the need for the state to depend on the Brahmanas to achieve legitimacy and validation. 19 It is true that the kings gave large numbers of land grants to the religious beneficiaries, but they also attempted to control them through various measures. For example, the religious beneficiaries did not have control over the state policies with reference to traders who could challenge the religious authority of the Brahmanas. It is important to note that the state established economic and social institutions to achieve legitimacy and validation of their authority. 20
The relationship between the state and village community is summarised by B. P. Sahu. According to him, ‘… while state formation was dependent on agrarian expansion and the spread of rural settlements, the growth of state societies had a bearing on the growing complexity of village communities[.]’ 21 The formation of village communities served the dual purposes of establishing rural settlements and expansion of agricultural production, thereby representing an important phase of state formation. It is also important to note that along with state formation, the village communities became complex units, as they needed to serve the changing needs of the state. This article proposes that along with state formation, there was an increase in the number of villages governed by the communities.
Historical Background
Before understanding the origin and growth of the village communities in Goa, it is important to analyse the political history of the region, which throws light on the possible origin of this institution in not only Goa but also other parts of the Konkan. The Kadambas of Banavasi had ruled some parts of Goa as revealed by an inscription discovered in Aravalem. There are similarities between Banavasi Kadambas and the Goa Kadambas who patronised Jainas and the Brahmanas, including the agraharas and mahajanas. The formation of agraharas led to the emergence of the mahajanas, who enjoyed considerable rights. The Chalukyas of Badami ruled Goa after the decline of the Banavasi Kadambas. The Rashtrakutas ruled Goa indirectly as the overlords of the Shilaharas. The Goa Kadambas ruled Goa from tenth century
The Portuguese who succeeded the Bahamanas followed their policies such as auctioning of the village land for the production purpose and sharing of loss and profit among the gaonkars. 23 It is important to note that these dynasties were trans-regional in character. By implication, they administered the regions such as Karnataka and Goa. In addition, one can find similarities and differences between the social and economic institutions found in these regions. For example, the okkalu, a peasant organisation of Karnataka, is not mentioned in Goa. At the same time, these regions refer to the village communities.
It is important to study the village communities in Karnataka, the neighbouring region of Goa. There are pieces of evidence to suggest that along with the village communities of, Karnataka there was a simultaneous process of the growth of the village communities in Goa. It is possible that the dynasties such as the Goa Kadambas and the Vijayanagara introduced similar policies in different parts of their dominion.
The Portuguese chronicles such as Dioga do Couto and Goan scholars such as F. N. Xavier have highlighted the relationship between Goa and Kanara (Canara), parts of the present state of Karnataka. A Kannada text, Gramapaddhati, mentions Sasashthi (Salcete) and Kushashtali as the Brahmana settlements. 24 These two settlements belonged to Goa. The Vijayanagara Kings followed the policy of transferring the governors of Kanara to Goa, thereby further strengthening this relationship.
Further, it has been argued that one of the earliest settlers of Goan villages were the peasants who belonged to Karnataka. 25 It is possible that a few peasants descended from the Ghats. In Goa and Karnataka, there are tribal groups named kurubas. 26 They were shepherds who also became the workers in the fields in the context of this region. The Brahmanas, who provided ritual service to them, followed the peasants. As the person who had the knowledge of Sanskrit, including Vedas and Puranas, the Brahmanas obtained considerable respect in a pre-modern society, and Goa was not an exception to this development. The dynasties such as the Kadambas, the Western Chalukyas and the Vijayanagara donated lands to the Brahmanas and legalised their ownership over the land. Consequently, the Brahmanas, as elsewhere in peninsular India, emerged as the natural leaders of the peasant population. In actuality, the Brahmanas along with the Chardos (who claim Kshatriya status in Goa) controlled most of the village communities. 27 The sources related to the New Conquest region show the domination of Brahmanas in this region where land was available in plenty. 28 Such a situation would have allowed the Brahmanas to emerge as the landlords in this region particularly in the absence of the political authorities such as the Portuguese who introduced significant modifications to the village community system in the Old Conquest region, thereby affecting the originality of this ancient institution. 29
The State and the Village Communities Under the Kadambas
In Goa, one can find various landowners such as the king or the state and the individual owners of land such as the Brahmanas and the village community. During the initial years of its history, Goa exhibited evidence of individual ownership of land. In the year 1049
A Kadamba inscription belonging to 1106
Even though the state allowed some autonomy for the village communities, it retained the right to punish the violators of the conditions of the grant. Further, the inscription also shows that the members of the village community possessed the right to share the profit and loss. The Portuguese appreciated this principle as they compelled the gaonkars to share the losses that they suffered due to lack of agricultural production and the need to pay tax to the state. 34
A twelfth-century inscription shows the working of the village communities, as there was a provision to punish the members the community. The community convicted a few individuals for indulging in illegal activities. According to this inscription, the Brahmanas of Halsi and God Narasimha obtained the right over twelve shares. After spending 500 nishkas or gold coins, the community bought ornaments for the God. A Brahmana had stolen this ornament. The Kadamba king, who obtained this information, punished the Brahmana by taking away three shares from him and depositing the same with the God to compensate the deity for the loss of the ornament. 35 The Brahmanas played an important role in state formation during the Kadamba period. The political authority attempted to legitimise its authority, and it depended on the Brahmanas who became the leaders of the village communities.
The Kadambas who also mention the rules of their governance created one of the earliest village communities. The practice, which was prevalent in Karnataka, was extended to Goa and other parts of the Konkan. The creation of the Brahmana settlements created the material basis for the state formation in Goa. The Brahmanas managed the landed property, thereby becoming the material basis for the state, which could collect revenue from the landowners and the tenants.
The Vijayanagara in Goa and the Village Communities
After the decline of the Kadambas, Goa became a part of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is possible that the Kadambas served the Vijayanagara in Karnataka and Goa. A Vijayanagara inscription mentions the rule of a Vijayanagara official Bachanna Vodeya over Goa or Gove. The inscription also mentions a legend pertaining to the goddess named Brahmani. The inscription is important because one can find Brahmani in both Karnataka and Goa. The inscription clearly mentions that the Vijayanagara had replaced the Kadambas not only in Goa but also in Karnataka. Accordingly, the Vijayanagara official Madhava Raya was the lord of Govepura and protector of people belonging to Kadambapura. His son Bachana Raya ruled over Chandragutti, Banavase and Konkana, thereby indicating the continuity of the tradition between the Kadambas of Goa and the Vijayanagara who patronised the political and social institutions apparently supported by the Goa Kadambas.
36
This inscription shows that the Vijayanagara followed the policy of combining Goan and Karnataka territories due to administrative convenience. The Vijayanagara officials, consequently, could utilise the resources of Goa and its Karnataka territories near Goa. Interestingly, a fourteenth-century inscription mentions Goveya Simhasana meaning the throne of Goa.
37
Apart from Brahmanas, the inscriptions also mention the gaudas or the peasants. In the Gove-Gutti kingdom, there was a person named Rama Gauda who died, and his wife Bomma Gaudi performed sahagamana or sati.
38
The inscription belongs to 1417
The Panaji plates of Harihara II, belonging to 1391
The inscription has interesting details concerning the conditions imposed on the donees. If a Brahmana migrates from the village, other members of the village enjoyed his share. Second, an outsider could become part of the village community with the consent of the donees provided the new person occupied an unoccupied plot. While doing so, the new entrant also should obtain the permission of the person belonging to the neighbour of that plot of land. 42 The member of the village had to take the permission of others before selling and giving the land as a gift to another person. The parties involved in such transaction would be punished if the donee failed to obtain such permission from other donees, indicating the collective nature of the decision-making process, which is found in the present panchayat system and the Goan communidades.
The Brahmanas also secured the right to obtain the gift from the king and taxes on ferry dues related to four rivers, the tax levied on the writers, merchants, garland makers, ferrymen, washermen, architects, smiths, betel nut gardeners, leather workers and other artisans. It is apparent that the Brahmanas were considered as the managers of the villages that were granted to them. In the process, they were also provided the service of the Sudra artisans. The charter also mentions that it has examined the Goa Kadamba inscriptions before making this grant to the Brahmanas. 43
One can suggest that this land grant mentions the creation of a communal property managed by the Brahmana leaders who were termed gaonkars in the Goan context. They also obtained the service of the Sudra cultivators and artisans. At the same time, there are inscriptions, which show the individuals as the owners of land. 44 In the context of the Kadamba and Vijayanagar inscriptions, there is no reference to the term gaonkar. It is possible that the Bahamani rulers used this term even though there is no evidence to support this argument. Nevertheless, it shows that the Adil Shahis did not introduce major changes to the village community system that prevailed under the Kadambas and the Vijayanagar.
It is clear that during this period apart from the communal property, individual ownership of land also prevailed. It is possible that apart from Brahmanas, there were non-Brahmanas who acted as the landowners. By granting land to the individuals and to a community, the state ensured agricultural expansion, which allowed it to collect tax from the landowners. An incentive was provided to the cultivators by allowing them to share the profit and loss among them. However, one can note one difference between the village communities of Karnataka and Goa. In Karnataka, there was the emergence of large communities comprising hundreds and sometimes thousands of shareholders. 45
In the case of Goa, there were only a few landowners who could be considered as the gaonkars. However, there were the shareholders who were given the right to obtain a dividend on account of agricultural production in the village. The principle of equality and collective decision-making process among the elites is apparent in Goa. In the case of larger village communities comprising thousands of members, it would be difficult to follow the principles of direct democracy. In such cases, the mahajanas and other village communities had to elect their leaders to take decisions on their behalf. This difference gave a distinct character to the Goan village communities, as they were comparatively small and compact.
Village Communities Under the Portuguese in the Sixteenth Century: Continuity or Change?
In British India, it is shown that the colonial policies affected the village communities, thereby leading to their decline. 46 However, in Goa, the village communities survived, and they exist even today albeit in an altered way. The Goa Islands became part of the Portuguese ‘Estado da India’ in the sixteenth century. In fact, a Brahmana named Mal Pai invited the Portuguese to take over Goa from the Muslim rule. It was believed that a non-Muslim authority could ensure enhanced position of the Brahmanas. 47 In the initial years of the Portuguese rule, there was emergence of cooperation between the Portuguese and the Brahmanas before the Portuguese initiated the policy of conversion. In actuality, the Portuguese collected a list of temple lands in different villages of Goa. The Gowda Saraswat Brahmanas also acted as landlords and traders. Their cooperation was essential for the Portuguese in Goa. Many documents exhibit this cooperation between the Portuguese and Brahmanas of Goa. 48 In return for the cooperation from the Hindus of Goa, the Portuguese assured continuation of the previous system prevalent in this region.
In the year 1526, Afonso Mexia, the finance minister of the Portuguese government, issued a document, which mentioned the rights of the landowners (gaonkars), workers, leaseholders, shareholders and others who were connected with a village. Lopes Mendes published a copy of this work in his work. 49 Apart from him, Baden-Powell and Filipe Nery Xavier also published them in their works. It is important to discuss the provisions of this work. Under the Portuguese, the Brahmanas continued to remain as the leaders of the village communities providing leadership to other members.
Baden-Powell studied the Foral of 1526, which aimed to present the rules that governed the village communities. It mentions a set of rules that deal with the Gancars (gaonkars). They are termed as the governors, administrators or benefactors. However, these rules pertain only to the Old Conquest region comprising the Goa Islands known as the Ilhas comprising thirty-one villages. Subsequently, after the conquest of Bardez and Salsette, other fifty-three and thirty-nine villages were added. However, by the time of the publication of the work of Baden-Powell, there were 421 villages. Baden-Powell mentions that the gaonkars were the founders or the earliest settlers of the village. At the same time, he claims that the origin of this institution is unknown. The gaonkars became the leaders of the village and agreed to pay rent and taxes to the state. 50
However, there are some interesting details, which show the relationship between the terms and conditions mentioned in Kadamba and the Vijayanagara inscriptions. They mention that the authorities could not remove the gaonkars as they enjoyed the hereditary rights, even though the king could punish them. In the case of a gaonkar leaving the land due to the inability to pay the taxes, the assembly named gancaria, comprising other gaonkars, should meet and instruct the said gaonkar to pay the amount. If the gaonkar failed to pay the amount, the community, based on the collective decision-making process, could confiscate his property. The descendant of the absconding gaonkar can be allowed to retain the property provided the person is willing to pay the due. At the same time, the gaonkars cannot take over the movable property of the gaonkar. In addition, when a gaonkar dies without a male heir, his property becomes the crown property. 51 Some of these provisions are similar to the terms and conditions mentioned in the previously mentioned inscriptions. It appears that Mexia and his officials consulted the gaonkars before writing this document.
The document, according to Baden-Powell, refers to different grades of the gaonkars. For example, the dancers need to dance before gaonkar of the higher grade. Similarly, betel is offered to the gaonkars based on their grade. The chief gaonkar has the right over others in thatching the roof and during the harvest time. However, in the assembly, there is equality between the gaonkars as they have equal rights while participating in the decision-making process. 52
The clerk called Kulkarni and the writer assists the headman. In the absence of the headman, the writer can make announcements regarding the decisions of the assembly. 53 The document also refers to the sharing of the income, profit and loss of the village community among the gaonkars. The latter, as members of the village community, have the right over the specified share. In addition, when there is an increase in the tax demands from the state, they need to bear the loss. 54 The previously mentioned inscriptions also mention these provisions, thereby showing the continuity between the Vijayanagara and the sixteenth-century Goa ruled by the Portuguese. The tables appended to this article also show the continuity between the pre-Portuguese and the Portuguese periods with reference to the village communities of Goa.
Continuity
The Foral also refers to the village servants such as temple priest (Brahmana), the gatekeeper, the rent payer, the washerman, cobbler, carpenter, blacksmith, temple-servant (sweeper), dancing girls and the ‘chocarreiro’. According to Baden-Powell, the last category was the mahar or the village servant. Further, the gaonkars cannot give land to a person who did not belong to the village. 55 Baden-Powell calls their land as watan or land grants in return for the service offered by the professional groups. However, in the inscriptions of Karnataka, they are termed ayas, and those who obtained them were called ayagars. 56 The implication is that the servants were provided with land in return for their service to the villagers. At the same time, the servants did not obtain the most fertile land. In some cases, they were also given wastelands. This practice became a common way of obtaining service from the village servants under the Vijayanagara Kings who introduced it in Tamil Nadu. 57
Even though outsiders were not allowed to become the members of the village community, one can assume that the gaonkars could collectively decide to accept a person who did not belong to the village provided such a decision did not affect the members of the community. The inscriptions of the Kadambas and the Vijayanagara also mention this practice. The gaonkars also have the right to grant the waste or unutilised land to a person for use so that the village is able to obtain income. However, during the first twenty-five years, the person needed to pay rent at a reduced rate. After twenty-five years, the state could revise the rate.
58
Such a provision also existed in the Kadamba inscription. For example, a Kadamba inscription belonging to 1059
The Foral of 1526 also contains valuable information concerning the ways of selling and purchasing the land belonging to the gaonkar. The seller and the buyer of the property should take the consent of other gaonkars before making the transaction. The community has the right to dismiss the transaction made without taking prior consent of the gaonkars. The purchaser has no legal claim over the money that he advanced to the seller. 60 The pre-Portuguese records also mention this provision, showing the continuity between the pre-Portuguese and Portuguese periods, even though the state introduced a few modifications to these rules. The rule concerning the succession and the treatment given to the officials of the state were not stated in the inscriptions, but it is possible that they were actually implemented. The Hindu law books mention the few provisions mentioned in this document. For example, there is a provision regarding the rate of interest charged on loans. Accordingly, the interest amount cannot exceed the principal amount. 61 In addition, in the cases of serious nature, minors, gardeners, day labourers and sons of prostitutes cannot give witness even though in minor cases they are allowed to play their role as witnesses. 62 It is true that in the later period, the Portuguese introduced significant changes to the provisions governing the village communities, thereby affecting the Brahmanas. However, the latter remained important for the Portuguese governance in Goa as one finds large number of Hindus or Brahmanas in the administrative hierarchy of the Portuguese. At the same time, the Portuguese policy of conversion affected a large numbers of Brahmana gaonkars who left Goa for better prospects in the regions such as Karnataka. At least up to the 1530s, one can identify a close relationship between the Portuguese and the Goa Brahmanas.
Reviewing Baden-Powell
One can note a few errors in the observations of Baden-Powell. He argues that in the Deccan and the Konkan, the ryotwari system was a dominant agrarian system. It is true that the ryotwari system or individual ownership of land by ryots or cultivators existed in South India and the Konkan. However, the communal property system also accompanied the ryotwari system. At the same time, Baden-Powell is surprised at the fact that the gaonkars were able to maintain equality, and in this sense, they differed from the mirasidars
63
of the Deccan who enjoyed greater authority over other proprietors.
64
He makes the following statement
65
:
I do not mean to suggest that we possess any detailed information of the earliest or pre-Mughal Moslem system. But the system described in the Foral certainly differed widely from that of the older Hindu kings, and in principle represents the Moslem plan.
Baden-Powell did not study the inscriptions that we mentioned in this article. He is aware that before the Portuguese, Goa was ruled by the Hindu dynasty of the Kadambas. However, he suggests that the village communities in the Goa Islands were comparatively a recent phenomenon. He was not aware that these details were also available in the inscriptions of the Kadambas and Vijayanagara in not only Goa but also in Karnataka. The village communities of Kadambas existed before the Kadambas as it was ruled by the Karnataka dynasties. There is evidence regarding the spread of such a system in the Konkan. The Karnataka kings as the rulers of Konkan would have established similar social and economic institutions in these regions.
Baden-Powell is also surprised that there is no documentation concerning the shares called khunt mentioned in other parts of the Konkan. According to Baden-Powell, there is a provision to sell one’s shares to others. In the early seventeenth century, in fact, there was the emergence of the new shareholders who attempted to emerge as the gaonkars. 66 However, the provision regarding the shares is clearly discussed in the pre-Portuguese inscriptions of Goa and Karnataka. The shares were called vrittis in the Karnataka inscriptions. Different individuals obtain different vrittis. While a higher category of Brahmana and the temples can have a larger share, a lower category of Brahmana or a servant can be assigned less numbers of shares. Further, Baden-Powell does not discuss regarding the role of the Brahmanas in the village communities. He exhibits a few misconceptions concerning the Goan village communities. However, as an administrative historian, Baden-Powell attempts to justify the state ideology. In addition, he did not have access to the inscriptions that could have given valuable details concerning the nature of the pre-Portuguese agrarian system. This study shows the importance of analysing the inscriptions to find the origin and expansion of the village communities in this region. The study of F. N. Xavier shows that Brahmanas played an important role in the village communities. They acted as the leaders of other members. This is not to suggest that the non-Brahmanas were absent in this space. They were present, particularly during the Portuguese period. However, as the Brahmanas enjoyed an eminent position in the society, the non-Brahmanas respected them, and the Brahmanas, consequently, emerged as the natural leaders of this institution. This trend declined in the Portuguese period as they introduced major changes in the village communities, as the state preferred the Christian gaonkars while punishing the Brahmanas who represented the Hindu resistance in Goa.
Conclusion
In the pre-Portuguese and Portuguese periods, the Brahmanas played a significant role in enhancing the state authority. The Brahmanas also gained from the prevalence of a stable state. In the Kadamba and the Vijayanagara periods, the land grants to the Brahmanas enhanced agricultural production. The state could enhance its revenue through tax collection. The Brahmanas performed spiritual and secular functions. They performed the religious ceremonies and legitimised the state authority. In actuality, some of the Brahmana families who became part of the village community of the Kadamba period served the Kadambas for a few generations. The Adil Shahis and the Vijayanagara followed the Kadamba policy, as they understood the importance of the Brahmanas to strengthen the state authority. The Brahmanas emerged as the leaders of the community. As the literate class, they could express their views to the state authorities. This tradition continued under the Portuguese, particularly during the early period of its rule, when the state continued to respect the Brahmanas and the village communities. This study shows the importance of studying the Portuguese as well as the pre-Portuguese history of Goa to understand the function of its social and economic institutions. The study also shows that along with state formation, there was increase in the number of the village communities. The process, which began under the Goa Kadambas found its culmination under the Portuguese who collected information regarding the Brahmana and non-Brahmana gaonkars, thereby showing that the Brahmanas continued to play an important role even under the Portuguese.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Appendix
List of village communities in the sixteenth century 67